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NlHIL OBSTAT
STI. LUDOVICI, DIB 3. DECEMBRIS 1898.
F. G. HOLWECK,
CENSOR LIBRORUM.
IMPRIMATUR ST. Louis, Mo., DEC. 7m, 1898.
JOHN J. KAIN, ARCHBISHOP OF ST. Louis.
COPYRIGHT, 1899, BY Jos. GUMMEBSBAOH.
BECKTOLD
PRINTING AND BOOK MFG. CO., ST. LOUIS, MO.
PREFACE.
This little book, by a German Benedictine Father, is intended as nothing more than an " introduction" to the knowledge of the Fathers of the Church. It might be called a "handy-book" to the great col lection of writers whose works appear in the " Cur- sus Patrologice." No student has any chance of thoroughly mastering the whole of the three or four hundred volumes of Migne's edition. But, on the other hand, no one can pretend to a scientific knowl edge of divinity, unless he has read the Fathers to some purpose. Students, therefore, whether those who are passing through their course in a seminary, or those who, in more mature years, are following up some portion of the Church's great doctrinal inherit ance, will always find a use for a small and well arranged guide to the epochs, the authors, and the subjects of patristic literature.
An acquaintance with the writings of the Fathers of the Church is useful to students of theology on many heads.
First, to be tolerably well read in the Fathers is to know theblogy in its historical aspect. No man ever possesses a true knowledge of things that have grown, unless, to a certain extent, he can trace the process of their growth. To understand , in all its circumstances and surroundings, the development of any one dogma, is a splendid training in scientific theology. To appre-
4 PREFACE.
ciate what it was in the past, and in the actual circum stances that made St. Augustine defend with such amplitude and determination his views of grace and predestination, which, nevertheless, as he said, had always been held by the Church of God; to see with your own eyes in the pages of Athanasius and Hilary, how the terminology of the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity becomes distinct and clear-cut ; to feel the tremulous and indignant emphasis which Leo puts in his oft-repeated formula of the Word made flesh ; to follow Cyril of Alexandria through the thicket of his earnest speech, and recognize at every turn the traces of an adversary who is intent on denying to Jesus Christ his eternity and his divinity — this kind of study is a very different thing from learning formu laries by heart, or getting up patristic texts in com- pendiums.
Moreover, it is from the study of the Fathers that modern theology derives what I may call its elastic ity. This is an age of manuals, abstracts, catechisms, and other apparatus for accomplishing the process which is known as " cramming." Education con ducted on principles of this kind can never become part of one's mental and spiritual life. The knowl edge thus gained lies in the receptive power like a stone on the surface of a field ; whatever crop the field grows, the stone has no share in fertilizing it. The Fathers did not write abstracts. They searched the Scriptures, compared testimonies, examined tradi tions and expostulated with false teachings. Most of them launched out from time to time into literary ex position, into rhetoric, or into poetry. A modern catechism read without the light of patristic illustra tion is both inadequate and misleading. When faith is
PREFACE. 5
described as being " to believe without doubting whatever God has revealed," the patristic student thinks of the long centuries, full of intellectual activ ity, during which that august word has been invoked, written about, defined, divided, lifted up, trampled upon and fought over — and he is the less likely to fancy that this definition tells him all about it. When he reads that God is the Supreme Spirit, Who exists of Himself, " he will remember, if he has read Athanasius, Hilary, and John Damascene, how the Greek and Latin intellect have striven to put into philosophic language the revelation of God's Name, I am Who am." The formularies say with easy consciousness that man was "made to God's image and likeness ; " the Fathers have discussed from a hundred points of view what this divine revelation means. The formularies lay down the Church's faith in the dogma of the creation of the world, and that of the generation of the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity; and the great folios of the Fathers contain hundreds of pages on the Scriptural proofs of the differ ence in origination between the visible creation and the Eternal Word. The catechism says, "There are seven sacraments." The patristic student looks for them in the Fathers, and he finds no lists, no Triden- tine definitions, but, instead, scattered testimonies, appeals to Scripture and to Roman tradition, fervent exhortations, implicit assertions, from which, finally, he gathers the unvarying teaching of the Catholic Church, as a man fills his basket with fruit, not from the shop-windows, but from the trees of the wide lux uriant forest. It is this kind of reading that makes theology elastic. By this wor.d it is not meant that the study of the Fathers can or ought to make any
6 PREFACE.
student question the absolute truth of dogmatic defini tions, or of any portion of the Church's magisterium. If this were so, the Fathers would have discussed to no purpose, and written their great treatises in vain. But dogmatic formularies can be viewed in two aspects. They are definitions of Catholic truth, and they are also summaries of history — monuments of the Church's living activity. They cannot be reformed or diminished. But they have a living and stimulat ing power of their own. They are far from being dead forms. They touch and affect every faculty that man possesses — the imagination, the heart, the feel ings, the memory, the sense of affection, of Christian pride and joy. Moreover, just as existing definitions liave arisen out of legitimate development, so they, in their turn, afford starting points for further investiga tion and devout speculation. This twofold quality of dogma, its stimulating power and its capacity of growth, is what I have called its elasticity.
Dogma, to a cultured and truly Catholic intelli gence, is not a prison, but a spacious and fertile garden with unexplored distances and delights. It is in this spirit that it is treated by the great Fathers of the Church. They give you its philosophy, its sense, its relation to human nature. They read its glories in the oracles of God, in the history of God's dealings with His chosen people. They use it for devotion, for prayer, for the promotion of justice and brotherly love. They make religious truth, not the narrow catch-word of the chapel or the school catechism, but what it really is — the strong creative principle of the widest and most essential science upon which man's intelligence can employ itsejf. It is this kind of largeness that one learns from the Fathers. Their
PREFACE. 7
expositions may sometimes seem antiquated, tedious, or fanciful. They wrote for their times, which are not our times. The form in which we have their works does not always do justice to their own presentment of their thoughts. But, on the whole, the spirit is there — the spirit of breadth and of actuality — and it is a spirit we can only learn in their school.
The mere personality of each of the great Fathers of the Church, almost apart from his writings — although it is impossible to separate him from them — is of the greatest interest to the student of theology. Such men as Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Gregory of Nazianzen, Basil, Chrysostom, Augustine, Leo, Gregory the Great, Ambrose, Jerome, have each of them in their life-story a stimulation, an educative power, such as belong only to the world's foremost names. The right way to make their acquaintance, is to read their lives and their works together, so that one may illuminate the other. The best key to the comprehension of a writer is his own individuality, his character, his personal relations, and his surroundings. Whatever may be said about the style of the Fathers, it is certain that the greater part of them write a gen uine literary language, a language of great clearness, strength, delicacy, and beauty. Many of them have marked individuality of style. It would be difficult to mistake Nazianzen or Chrysostom, or any of the great Latin Doctors.
To read through the Fathers as a whole, is not with in the power of a student. But even a student can do two things. First of all, he can learn to appreci ate that *« historical" method of teaching theology, which is more followed now than it used to be. The way with " manuals " has too often been to fling iso-
8 PREFACE.
lated patristic texts at the learner, without comment or explanation. But Passaglia and Franzelin have brought back into the schools the custom of reading a Father's words by the light of his period and sur roundings ; of putting into clear relief the apodictic terms ; of accumulating testimonies, and showing how they converged to a common point. Even if one can not go through the whole of Petavius, one can learn the significance of patristic terms and phrases, and one can follow up the texts that come in one's course. But there are students who go through their course without distinguishing Origen from Damascene, Irenseus from Gregory the Great, or even Clement of Alexandria from Leo. As for St. Augustine, there are too many who finish their studies with the convic tion that he can be quoted for both "yea" and "nay" in nearly every disputed point of grace and predestination. A little attention and the use of a handy-book would enable a student to deal with pa tristic names in a spirit of discernment; and such discernment adds immeasurably to the interest and profit of theological study.
Next, there is no student who could not, under guidance, read at least a few portions of the more im portant Fathers. There are some he would read for their exposition of Scripture, some for dogmatic argument, some for moral exhortation, or for history, personal traits, eloquence, or invective. No ecclesi astical education seems to be complete unless one has read a chapter or two of Origen against Celsus, an oration of Gregory Nazianzen, some letters of Chry- sostom, with the whole of his work on the priesthood, the homilies of Leo, the letters of Jerome, the Con fessions of St. Augustine, with some of his City of God,
PREFACE .
and liberal excerpts from the pastoral writings of Greg ory the Great. Even so much as this would enable us to guess the richness of an unexplored world, and tempt us to do more when the opportunity offered. And that opportunity would not be wanting. There are large tracts of patristic writing that are compara tively out of date, crabbed, dry, and dull. But there is abundance that is living, actual, bright, and impres sive — far more, indeed, than any reader is likely to exhaust. For our study of dogma, all through life, we can always find new views in the Fathers ; for our exhortation, pregnant phrases that carry whole sermons in their bosom ; for our devotion and spiritual life, the ideas and principles of men who did not copy other men, but lived face to face with eternal truth, and very close to Jesus Christ.
t JOHN CUTHBKRT HEDLEY, O. S. B.,
Bishop of Newport. Feast of St. Lawrence,
Aug. 10, 1898.
INDEX OF CONTENTS.
PA&ES.
PREFACE
INTRODUCTION •
§ 1. Meaning and Object of Patrology ... 19
§ 2. Importance of Patrology 20
§ 3. History of Patrology ....... 21
§ 4. Division of Patrology 24
PART I.
INTRODUCTORY AND PROPAEDEUTICAL PART. § 5. MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF THIS PART . 25
CHAPTER I.
Notion and Definition of the Terms Ecclesiastical Writer, Father, Doctor.
§ 6. Ecclesiastical Writers 26
§ 7. Fathers of the Church . 27
§ 8. Doctors of the Church 29
CHAPTER II.
Authority of the Fathers.
§ 9. Authority of the Fathers in General. . . 30
§ 10. Authority of Single Fathers 33
§ 11. Authority of the Fathers in Matters of
Faith and Morals . 35
12 INDEX OF CONTENTS.
PAGES.
§ 12. Authority of the Fathers in the Interpre tation of Holy Scripture 36
§ 13. Authority of the Fathers in Ascetical and
Pastoral Theology 38
§ 14. Relation of the Fathers to Holy Scripture
and the Church 39
CHAPTER III. Criticism in Patrology.
§ 15. Notion of Criticism 40
§ 1C. Causes of Substitution, Interpolation and
Loss of Patristic Works 42
§ 17. Criteria, or Marks of Genuineness and
Spuriousness 44
§ 18. Rules for the Application of Criticism . 46
CHAPTER IV. Use of the Fathers.
§ 19. Use of the Fathers in General .... 47
§ 20. Use in Matters of Dogma 48
§21. Use in Morals and Ascetics 49
§ 22. Use in Biblical Exegesis 50
§ 23. Selection of Fathers 51
§ 24. Preliminary Conditions to Profitable Use. 53
§ 25. Means and Ways of Using the Fathers . 54
CHAPTER V. Means Necessary for Understanding the Fathers.
§ 26. Causes of Difficulties 56
§ 27. Scientific Means 57
§ 28. Literary Means 58
INDEX OF CONTENTS. 13
PART II.
PATEOLOGY PEOPEE.
PAGES.
§ 29. DIVISION 63
FIRST EPOCH.
ORIGIN OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE.
Age* of the Apostolic Fathers till A. D. 150.
§ 30. The Apostolic Fathers 63
§ 31. Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles ... 65
§ 32. St. Barnabas, Apostle 68
§ 33. St. Clement of Rome 72
§ 34. Hernias 75
§ 35. St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch ... 79
§ 36. St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna ... 82
§ 37. St. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis ... 85 § 38. The Unknown Author of the Epistle to
Diognetus 86
SECOND EPOCH. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE.
CHAPTER I.
Greek Fathers and Writers. § 39. General Survey . 88
A. Apologists.
§ 40. St. Justin, Martyr 89
§ 41. Tatian, the Assyrian 93
§ 42. Athenagoras, the Philosopher .... 96
§ 43. St. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch . . 97
§ 44. Lesser Apologists 99
INDEX OF CONTENTS.
B. Controversialists.
PAGES.
§ 45. St. Irenseus, Bishop of Lyons .... 102 § 46. Cajus, the Roman Presbyter .... 105
§ 47. St. Hippolytus 106
§ 48. St. Archelaus of Cascar (Carrae) . . . 109
C. Commentators.
§ 49. Pantaenus HO
§ 50. Clement of Alexandria HI
§ 51. Origen . . . . ^ 114
§ 52. Friends of Origen — St. Gregory Thauma- turgus, St. Pamphilus, St. Dionysius, the
Great 120
§ 53. St. Methodius, Bishop of Olympus . . . 124
CHAPTER II. Latin Fathers and Writers.
§ 54. Tertullian, Presbyter of Carthage . . . 126
§ 55. Minucius Felix 132
§ 56. St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage . . . 134
§ 57. Popes — Cornelius, Stephen, Dionysius . 138
§ 58. Novatian, Schismatic 140
§ 59. Arnobius 142
§ 60. Lactantius Firmianus 143
THIRD EPOCH. FULL GROWTH OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE).
A. D. 325-461. §61. General Survey 147
INDEX OF CONTENTS. 15
CHAPTER I.
Gfreek and Oriental Fathers and Writers.
PAGES.
§ 62. Eusebius of Caesarea . 148
§ 63. St. Peter, Archbishop of Alexandria . . 153
§ 64. St. Athanasius, Archbishop of Alexandria 154
§ 65. St. Ephrem, the Syrian 160
§ 66. St. Cyril, Bishop of Jerusalem . . . >. 164
§ 67. St. Basil, the Great, Archbishop of Cresarea 167
§ 68. St. Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Sasima 170
§ 69. St. Gregory, Bishop of Nyssa . . . . 174
§ 70. Diodor, Bishop of Tarsus 179
§ 71. Theodore of Mopsuestia 181
Polychromiua of Apamea 183
§ 72. Didymus, the Blind 184
§ 73. St. Macarius, the Great, of Egypt ... 186 § 74. St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis . . . 187 § 75. St. Chrysostom, Patriarch of Constanti nople 190
§ 76. Synesius, Bishop of Ptolemais .... 197
§ 77. St. Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria . . . 199
§ 78. Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus 205
§ 79. St. Isidore, Bishop of Pelusium . . . 208
§ 80. St. Nilus, the Elder 211
§ 81. St. Mesrop 213
Bishop Eznik 214
Elishe, the Hermit 215
§ 82. Dionysius, the Areopagite 216
CHAPTER II. Latin Fathers and Writers.
§ 83. St. Hilary, Bishop of Poitiers .... 220
§ 84. St. Pacianus, Bishop of Barcelona . . . 223
16 INDEX OF CONTENTS.
PAGES.
§85. St. Optatus, Bishop of Mileve .... 225 § 86. Popes — St. Julius I., St. Damasus I., St.
Siricius 227
§ 87. St. Ambrose, Bishop of Milan .... 229
§ 88. Rufinus, Presbyter of Aquileja .... 236
§ 89. St. Jerome 237
§ 90. St, Augustine, Bishop of Hippo .... 243
§91. Sulpicius Severus 257
§ 92. St. Paulinus, Bishop of Nola .... 259 § 93. John Cassian, Priest and Abbot of Mar seilles 261
§ 94. St. Prosper of Aquitaine . . . . . . 264
§ 95. St. .Vincent of Lerins 267
§ 96. St. Eucherius, Bishop of Lyons . . . 269
§ 97. St. Hilary, Archbishop of Aries . . . 271
§ 98. Salvianus, Presbyter of Marseilles . . . 273
§99. St. Leo, the Great, Pope 275
§ 100. St. Peter Chrysologus, Archbishop of
Ravenna 279
§ 101. Christian Poets . . • 281
FOURTH EPOCH.
DECLINE OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE.
A. D. 461 — c. 700.
§ 102. Causes of Decline 287
CHAPTER I. Greek Fathers and Writers.
§ 103. St. John Climacus, Abbot 288
§ 104. St. Sophronius, Patriarch of Jerusalem. 289
§ 105. St. Maximus, Abbot and Confessor . . 293
INDEX OF CONTENTS. 17
PAGES.
§ 106. St. Anastasius Sinaita, Priest and Monk. 296
§ 107. St. John Damascene 298
CHAPTER II. Latin Fathers and Writers.
§ 108. St. Fulgentius, Bishop of Ruspe . . . 303
§ 109. St. Ennodius, Bishop of Pavia . . . 307
§110. Boethius, Senator and Roman Patrician . 310
§111. Cassiodorius, Statesman and Abbot . . 313
§ 112. St. Csesarius, Archbishop of Aries . . 316 § 113. St. Benedict, Abbot and Founder of the
Benedictine Order 318
§114. St. Gregory, Bishop of Tours .... 322
§ 115. Venantius Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers. 325
§ 116. St. Gregory, the Great, Pope .... 328
§ 117. St. Isidore, Archbishop of Seville . . 334
CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX 339
ALPHABETICAL INDEX .... 348
INTRODUCTION.
§ 1. Meaning and Object of Patrology.
By Patrology is meant a systematic treatment and exposition of such preliminary subjects and questions as are necessary to acquire a proper knowledge of the writings of the Fathers, and to make proper use of them in theology. Patrology, therefore, differs from the knowledge of the Fathers, or what is called patristical science, the special object of which is to arrange systematically, according to definite principles, all that can be gathered from the works of the Fathers concerning matters of faith, morals, and ecclesiasti cal discipline. Nor is it the same as the history of ancient Christian literature, because the latter includes the literary works not only of the Fathers, but also of other ancient ecclesiastical writers, and confines itself to the consideration of the historical development of Christian literature, as such.
The object, therefore, of Patrology, in this narrow sense, is, in the first place, to lay down and estab lish the rules and principles which help to determine the authority of the Fathers, and the authenticity, right use, and application of their works in theology. In the next place, its object is to give some account of the life, education, mental training, literary and pastoral work of each of the Fathers, also to deter mine their precise position in the Church, with their relative merits in ecclesiastical science. A further
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20 INTRODUCTION.
duty of Patrology is to explain the substance, scope, and number of their writings, the peculiarity of their views, their style of writing, and, finally, to indicate the best editions of their works. In its wider and less proper sense, however, it also takes into consideration those ecclesiastical authors who, though not Fathers, have yet exercised more or less influence upon the development of Christian life and knowledge.
§ 2. Importance of Patrology.
1. Patrology is of the highest importance for every student of theology. Theology is the science of revealed truth ; but the two main sources of revealed truth are Scripture and tradition,, Now the Fathers of the Church are the best. expounders of the Holy Scripture, and they are also the chief witnesses and representatives of tradition. Hence it is plain that the study of the Fathers is absolutely necessary for the student of theology. Again, if he desires to know something of the history of the Church from her very beginning, and of the long, unbroken chain of those who ever witness to her nature and constitu tion, her teaching and worship, or of her great and world-subduing power, he must needs go back to the times of Christian antiquity and search its memorable records ; he must try and enter into the very spirit of the Fathers, and feel their living faith and burning love for Christ and His Church. No wonder, then, that the greatest theologians have ever applied them selves with the utmost diligence to the study of the holy Fathers.
Cf. Mohler, Patrologie, pp. 1-15, (German ed.)
INTRODUCTION. 21
§ 3. History of Patrology.
It was only in the last century that Patrology was raised to the dignity of a theological science, properly so called. The Fathers of the Church, however, had laid the first stone of the building, as, for instance, Eusebius of Coesarea, by the many and most valuable notices bequeathed to us in his Church History, regarding the life and writings of the early Fathers of the Church; and St. Jerome, by his book, '* De viris illustribus, sive catalogus de scriptoribus ecclesi- asticis," which, beginning with the Apostolic and ending with his own age, contains an account, in 135 chapters, of the life and writings of the same number of authors. The work was taken up and continued in a similar manner by the priest Gennadius of Mar seilles (d. 496), St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636), Bishop lldephonsus of Toledo (d. 667), and some later writers.
Amongst the Greeks, the Patriarch Photius (d. 891), composed, under the title " Photii bibliotheca,"* a similar work of comprehensive learning and great acuteness, containing also some abridgments from heathen authors.
In the West, little or nothing more was done in this respect, until the Abbot Trithemius (d. 1516), and the Cathedral-Dean Myrdus (d. 1640), took up the work in a very laudable manner. These were followed by Cardinal R. Bellarmine (d. 1621), who aroused an increased interest in ancient ecclesi astical literature, and brought its scientific cultivation to an unprecedented point of excellence by his elab-
* The Greek title is
22 INTRODUCTION.
orate work, " Liber de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis," written in accordance with the rules of historical criticism.
A century later came the Benedictines (Maurists), and the Oratorians of France, who labored with the greatest zeal and wrought marvels in this department. Nicolas le Nourry, O. S. B. (d. 1724), collected the results of their minute and comprehensive researches in his valuable "Apparatus ad bibliothecam max. vett. Patrum" (2 vols., Paris 1703-1715), containing most learned dissertations. Elie Dupin (d. 1719), Doctor of the Sorbonne, brought out his u Nonvelle biblio- theque des auteurs ecclesiastiques " (19 torn. 4°. Amsterdam 1693-1715), splendidly written, but not free from Gallican prejudices and other questionable views. It extends as far as the seventeenth century, and includes biographies of ecclesiastical authors, a catalogue and criticism of their writings, as well as an examination of their doctrine and style. The Bene dictine Remy Ceillier composed on the same plan his " Histoire generate des auteurs sacres et eccl." (23 torn. 4°. Paris 1729-1763; 15 vols. 4°. Paris 1858- 1865), reaching to the middle of the 13th century; Tillemont his valuable " Me moires pour servir de guide dans les premiers six siecles de 1'histoire eccle- siastique" (20 torn. 4°. Paris 1693), and the priest Tricalet his " Bibliotheque portative des Peres" (9 torn. 8°. Paris 1757-1762).
In Germany, little in comparison was done for the advancement of patrological studies. The names of the most noteworthy men who devoted themselves to this work are the following : Dom. Schramm, O. S. B. (d. 1797), "Analysis Operum SS. Patrum " (18 torn. 8T0. Aug. Vind, 1780); Lumper, O. S. B. (d.
INTRODUCTION. 23
1800), " Historia theologica-critica de vita, scriptis atque doctrina SS. Patrum trium primorum sseculo- rum" (13 tern. 8V0. Aug. Vind. 1799); Mohler, 41 Patrologie, oder christliche Literargeschichte " (Regensburg 1840 — unfortunately incomplete) ; Permaneder, " Bibliotheca patristica " (Landish. 1841); Fessler, " Institutiones Patrologise " (2 torn. GEniponte 1850-1851), de novo editae a B. Jungmann (CEnip. et Ratisbonse 1890-1896); Alzog, u Hand- buch der Patrologie " (4th edition. Freiburg 1888). Finally, we have two recent works in German which unite in themselves all the merits of the above-named works, without their deficiencies, namely the exemplary Abridgment of Patrology and Patristic Science, by Dr. Jos. Nirschl (3 vols., Mainz 1881-1885), and the Handbook of Patrology, by Dr. Otto Bardenhewer (Freiburg 1894).
Amongst Protestants, who, in consequence of their peculiar rule of faith, are generally less concerned with patrological studies, the following deserve mention: the apostate Premonstratensian Casimir Oudin, "Com ment, de script, eccl." (2 fol. Lips. 1722) — also William Cave (d. 1713), " Scriptorum eccl. histo- ria liter." (2 fol. Lond. 1689, continued by Wharton and Cerens), and particularly J. Alb. Fabricius, for his very learned " Bibliotheca patristica" (graeca 14 torn. 4°. Hamb. 1718 — latina 2 torn. 4°. Venet. 1728.) In recent times, however, Protestant his torians display a most exemplary zeal in the study of Christian antiquity, although their labors are directed towards particular points of investigation, rather than towards a general presentation of the writings of the Fathers, while their method is generally that of nega tive criticism.
24 INTRODUCTION.
Practical directions for the study of the Fathers as well as the principles for determining their authority and the authenticity of their works, and other similar questions, had been given earlier by the Carthusian Nat. Bonav. d'Argonneiu " De optima methodo legen- dorum Ecclesise Patrurn ' ' (Aug. Vind. 1756) ; byHon- oratus a Sancta Maria in * ' Animadversiones in regu- laset usumcritices " (Venet. 1751) ; by the Cistercian and University Professor Steph. Wiest in " Institut. Patrologiae " (Ingolst. 1795), and, in later times, by Permaneder and Fessler in the above mentioned works.
§ 4. Division of Patrology.
Patrology may be divided into two main parts, namely, a general and a special part.
The general part is of an introductory and propae deutical character. It considers, in the first place, the definition of the term "Fathers of the Church," proceeding next to explain the principles which deter mine their authority, and, finally, supplying the means necessary to a proper understanding and use of their works in theology.
The special part embraces the more immediate sub jects of Patrology, namely a brief description of the life and education of the several Fathers or ecclesias tical writers ; an account of the number and value of their works, of their doctrine and characteristic peculiarities; and, lastly, an indication of the best editions, as well as the literature bearing on the sub ject.
PART I.
GENERAL, INTRODUCTORY, OR PROPAEDEU TICAL
§ 5. Meaning and Importance of this Part.
Propaedeutic is the name which the learned gener ally give to any theoretical introduction to a particular branch of science. The purpose of such an introduc tion is to determine the meaning and object of that particular science, as well as to point out the means necessary for pursuing it with fruit and profit. Accordingly, this part of Patrology, forming, as it does, the introduction and ground work to the knowl edge of the Fathers of the Church, has first to deter mine what is meant by an Ecclesiastical Writer, Father, and Doctor of the Church, and what is the respective authority of each in theology. In the next place, it has to explain the rules and principles by which authentic works are distinguished from unauthentic. Lastly, it must show us how to understand the works of the Fathers rightly, and how to use them profitably. This part, therefore, will not only be useful, inasmuch as it helps to facilitate the study of early theology, but also necessary, inasmuch as it will direct the student aright in his investigations, preserving him from possible excesses, or narrow and onesided views.
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26 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
CHAPTER I.
NOTION AND DEFINITION OF THE TERMS "ECCLESIAS TICAL WRITER, FATHER, DOCTOR."
§ 6. Ecclesiastical Writers.*
In a general sense, the name of ecclesiastical writer, as distinguished from inspired writer, may be given to all those who, ever since the days of the Apostles, have written in explanation or defense of the Christian doctrine. But in the narrower or specific sense, ec clesiastical writers differ from those who are called Fathers or Doctors of the Church. The difference derives frgm the character of their lives and writings. Ecclesiastical writers are called those men who, though living in the communion of the Church, have yet not always in their lives and writings expressed her pure and genuine traditional doctrine, as, for instance, Clem ent of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, Lactantius, Eusebius, Rufinus, Cassian, Theodoret of Cyrus, and others. If St. Irenseus, in spite of his Chiliastic opinions, and St. Gregory of Nyssa, in spite of his Origenistic ideas, are counted among the Fathers, it is because they did not propound their opinions apodic- tically as the teaching of the Church. Those Chris tians who have left behind writings on matters of faith, but did not live in the communion of the
* It has been considered expedient to omit in the English translation the opening sentence of this paragraph in the author, and to introduce some other slight alterations of the text. (B.)
MANUAL OF PATROLOGY. 27
Church, as, for instance, Novatian, are called Chris tian writers (scriptores christiani).
Cf. Fessler-Jungmann, Institut. Patrol. §§ 5-9.
§ 7. Fathers of the Church.
By Fathers of the Church are understood those ecclesiastical writers of old, who, on account of their learning and holiness of life, have been recognized as such by the Church. (Recte credentium Ecclesise filiorum genitores. )
Four conditions are necessary for a Father of the Church: —
(1.) Antiquity (competens antiquitas).
(2.) Ecclesiastical learning and orthodox doctrine (doctrina orthodoxa).
(3.) Holiness of life (sanctitas vitce).
(4.) Approbation of the Church (approbatio Eccle- sice).
1. Antiquity (Antiquitas) . Patrologists are not all agreed as to this condition. Some close the patristic period with the fourth, others with the sixth, others with the fourteenth century; whilst others, again, entirely object to any limitation of time ; for, as Mohler says, ' c There must be Fathers of the Church as long as the Church herself lasts." But according to the more common opinion, the patristic age is most appropri ately closed with the end of the Grseco-Roman period, so that Isidore of Seville (d. 636), may be considered as the last Father of the West, and John Damascene (d. 754), the last of the East.
2. Ecclesiastical learning (orthodoxa doctrina. ) By this condition are excluded not only anti-Christian and heterodox, but also those Christian writers who
28 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
have held and propounded erroneous views, or distin guished themselves in profane, rather than in eccle siastical knowledge. As regards the extent and meas ure of the knowledge required, it is not so much the depth or comprehensiveness of learning that is to be considered, as rather the fact that the writings of a Father are of great importance for some point or other of ecclesiastical science.
3. Holiness of life (sanctitas vitce). This condition is absolutely required in a Father of the Church. For there exists an internal connection between true eccle siastical learning and personal sanctity, and only those can be considered as Fathers who have helped to pro duce and to fashion the spiritual life of the Church, not merely by their writings, but also by their example.
4. Approbation by the Church (Approbatfo Eccle- sice). This approbation may be formal or explicit, as, for instance, by a general council, or by the Pope as supreme teacher of the Church; or only tacit and implicit, i. e., by the mere consent of the Church dis persed throughout the world. This condition is no less necessary than the other three, for the doctrine taught by the Fathers can only claim authority inas much as the Church herself considers their writings, so to speak, as her classics, and the Fathers them selves as her own witnesses to the divine tradition. Nevertheless, this approbation by the Church does not imply freedom from every error ; it only testifies to the fact that those men whom she recognizes ag Fathers, have lived to the end of their lives in constant communion with her, have distinguished themselves by piety and orthodox doctrine, and are, in consequence, perfectly trustworthy witnesses to her belief and
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teaching. The Fathers may be divided (1.) according to language, into Greek and Latin; (2.) according to authority, into Greater or Lesser; (3.) according to age, into (a.) Apostolic, as Clement of Rome, Polycarp, Ignatius, and others, bringing us up to about the year 150; (b.) Ancient or Early, as Justin, Ire- naeus, Cyprian, Gregorius Thaumaturgus, and others, till the end of the third century; and (c.) Later Fathers, as Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius, Hilary of Poitiers, Paulinus of Nola, Csesarius of Aries, and all others from the fourth to the eighth century.* Cf. Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. §§ 10-12.
§ 8. Doctors of the Church.
By Doctors of the Church we mean those ecclesi astical writers who, on account of their learning and holiness, have been expressly honored with this title by the Church.
Therefore in a Doctor of the Church are required : (1.) Eminent ecclesiastical learning (doctrina
orthodoxa eminens). (2.) Remarkable holiness of life (insignis sanc-
titas vitae). (3.) Express approbation on the part of the
Church (approbatio expressa). The condition of antiquity is not necessary, as the Church can at all times distinguish with this honor able title men eminent for piety and orthodox learn ing. The Greek Church has her Doctors as well as
* Usage seems to vary considerably in this respect. Some authors speak of Apostolic and Post- Apostolic Fathers, subdividing the latter class again into Ante-Nicene and Post-Nicene.' (R.)
30 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
the Latin. Amongst the Greeks are Athanasius (d. 373), who, however, is not entered as a "great oecumenical Doctor " in the Greek liturgy ; Basil (d. 379), Gregory of Nazianzen (d. 389), and Chrysos- tom (d. 407). Amongst the Latins, Ambrose (d. 397), Jerome (d. 420), Augustine (d. 430), and Gregory the Great (d. 604), are specially styled the Great (magni, egregii) Doctors of the Church. Later on were added to them — by Pius V., Leo the Great (d. 461) and Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274) ; — by Pope Sixtus V., Bonaventure (d. 1274); — by Pope Pius VIII., Bernard of Clairvaux (d. 1153) ; — by Pius IX., Hilary of Poitiers (d. 368), Alphonsus of Liguori (d. 1787), and Francis of Sales (d. 1622) ; and by Pope Leo XIII. , Cyril of Jerusalem (d. 386), Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444), and John Damascene (d. 754). Others, also, like Isidore of Seville (d. 636), Anselm of Canterbury (d. 1109), Peter Chryso- logus (d. 450), Peter Damian (d. 1071), are honored by the Church as Doctors in her liturgy, inasmuch as they have the antiphon proper to Doctors, and Credo in the mass of their feasts. Cf. Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 13.
CHAPTER II.
AUTHORITY OF THE FATHERS OF THE CHURCH.
§ 9. Authority of the Fathers in General.
By authority, as attributed to writers, is meant their power and right to command intellectual assent (auctoritas movens vel obligans). It is a moral
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power, affecting the mind and will of the reader, de termining his judgment, and obliging him to assent to the words or statements of the writer. This authority varies in degrees. It may be greater or less, and even absolute, according as it is calculated to produce in the mind a more or less probable, or a certain assent.
The authority of the Fathers has been very differ ently estimated at different times. Some few, after the example of the Abbot Fredegis, in the ninth century, placed their authority on a level with that of the prophets and Apostles ; while others, on the contrary, especially Protestants, beheld in the writings of the Fathers mere literary testimonials of no paramount importance in matters of faith. But the greater number of theolo gians have determined the authority of the Fathers by the following rules : —
(1.) In matters of natural science, the words of one, or many, or of all the Fathers together, have only as much weight as the reasons on which they are based. Tantum valent, quantum probant ; i. e., their author ity extends no farther than their proofs.
(2.) Even in matters appertaining to faith or morals, the testimony of one or two Fathers of the Church does not suffice to produce certainty, but only probability. The same holds good of the authority of many Fathers, in cases where other Fathers contra dict, or hold a different opinion.
(3.) But the agreement of all the Fathers of the Church together (consensus Patrum), in matters of faith and morals, begets complete certainty and com mands assent, because they, as a body, bear wit ness to the teaching and belief of the infallible Church, representing the Church herself. The con-
32 • MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
sensus, however, need not be absolute ; a moral agreement suffices, as, for instance, when some of the greatest Fathers testify to a doctrine of the Church, and the rest, though quite aware of it, do not positively oppose it. Whatever, therefore, the holy Fathers unanimously teach as the divinely revealed tradition of the Church, must be accepted and be lieved as such. " He who departs from the unanimous consent of the Fathers, departs from the Church." " Qui ab unanimi Patrum consensu discedit, ab uni- versa Ecclesia recedit." "He who rejects the holy Fathers, confesses that he rejects the whole Church." " Qui sanctos Patres reiicit, fatetur se universam Ecclesiam reiicere."* "The things that are drawn from the unanimous mind of the Fathers, possess a firm and invincible force against adversaries. ' ' 4 4 Quse ex consensu spiritual! Patrum depromuntur, firmam habent et inexpugnabilem contra adversaries vim."f
This binding authority of the " consensus Patrum in rebus fidei et morum " rests both upon a natural and supernatural basis.
(1.) Natural or historical basis. As men of great ecclesiastical learning, they are able to know and testify to that which the Church believed and taught in their times. As honest and holy men, they were willing to bear witness to the truth, and, finally, their agree ment with each other is a guarantee for the truth of their testimony. This may be called their natural and historical authority.
(2.) Supernatural basis. The Fathers give their testimony as the expression of their own faith, in due subordination to the supernatural power and author-
* S. Aug. c. Julian. II, 37. f St. Martin, P.
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ity of the teaching Church, and under her constant supernatural supervision. The Church, moreover, approves, confirms, and authenticates their testimony, inasmuch as she acknowledges them as orthodox teachers, and appeals herself to this unanimous testi mony as proof incontestable of her doctrine. This may be called their supernatural authority. Although the supernatural authority of the consensus Patrum rests ultimately upon the infallibility of the Church, nevertheless their testimony may, without fear of a vicious circle, be invoked also in favor of doctrines for which there exists no authoritative pronouncement by the Church. For, in the first place, their con sentient teaching is in itself an equivalent of the authoritative teaching of the Church, and, in the second place, their authority, as competent historical witnesses of belief and tradition, is independent of the Church, and is derived from the natural principle of philosophy, that the unanimous testimony of men capable of knowing the truth, and willing to tell it, is trustworthy and deserving of credence.
Editions and Literature. — Melch. Canus, Loci theol., lib. VII, c. 3. — Permaneder, Patrol, gener., pars II, c. 3. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 14 — Al. Sclimid, Untersuchungen iiber den letzten Gewiss- heitsgrund des Offenbarungsglaubens. Miinchen 1879. — Franzelin, De div. trad., II. c. I-II.
§ 10. Authority of Single Fathers.
The authority of single Fathers in matters of faith or morals is not in itself supreme or absolute, as if their " dicta " were infallible ; but to reject it, except for very grave reasons, would hardly be justifiable,
3
34 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
particularly if a Father represents a doctrine not merely as his own private opinion, but as the teaching of the Church. The latter is the case when the Fathers expound and defend their opinions as un doubted truths of faith ; or denounce as heretics those of an opposite opinion, or make use of such words as are equivalent to a profession of faith, viz. : we believe (credimus) ; we have been taught (edocti sumus) ; Christ has said (Christus dixit) ; the Apostles have handed down (Apostoli tradiderunt) ; the Church believes or holds (Ecclesia credit vel tenet) ; and such like. For the rest, the individual Fathers are not all of equal authority. The various degrees of authority may be determined by the fol lowing rules : —
(1.) The greater the holiness and learning of a Father, and the greater the honor in which he is keld by the Church, the greater is his authority.
(2.) Those Fathers who were in close connection with a great number of bishops, or who lived near to the times of the Apostles, have greater author ity than others less favorably placed. Again, those surpass others in authority who, by their special treatises, have successfully defended any assailed dogma of the Church, and brilliantly explained its meaning, such as SS. Athanasius, Augustine, and Hilary.
(3.) Of pre-eminent authority are those Fathers who were at the head of churches founded by the Apostles themselves, as SS. Clement of Rome, Ignatius, Poly- carp; or who were successors of St. Peter, as St. Leo the Great and St. Gregory the Great ; or who were preferred by the holy Fathers themselves before others. Those, again, rank higher in authority who received
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especial praise from the Church, or whose virtues were especially recommended by other devout and learned bishops, or whose works have been publicly read and approved by general councils.
Cf. Wiest, Instit. patr., §§ 354-357. — Fessler- Jungmann 1. c. § 14, 6.
§ 11. Authority of the Fathers on Questions of Faith and Morals.
The Fathers, in their unanimous consent, are the venerable organs and the fully competent witnesses* of the revealed doctrine of Jesus Christ, deposited in the Church and handed on by her from generation to generation. "For," as St. Augustine says, "they held to what they found in the Church ; they taught what they had learnt ; what they had received from the Fathers, they transmitted to the children." " Quod invenerunt in Ecclesia, tenuerunt; quod didi- cerunt, docuerunt ; quod a patribus acceperunt, hoc filiis tradiderunt." t
As the revealed doctrine of Jesus Christ embraces principally those things which we must believe and practice in order to obtain eternal life, so also does the authority of the Fathers extend to whatever we have to believe and to practice in the work of our salvation. And as the binding authority of the teaching Church
* So far as the Fathers of a certain period are all, or mostly, bishops, their consentient testimony in matters of faith or morals, is not only indirectly, but directly and in itself infallible, because they are the divinely appointed wit nesses (testes prseordinati), and the divinely instituted organ and channel of tradition. (R.)
f S. Aug. c. Julian., II. 9,
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has reference to things of faith and morals (res fidei et morum). so also is the decisive authority of the consensus Patrum likewise restricted within the same limits, outside of which no words of theirs require an unconditional assent.
Whence it follows that the authority of the Fathers is binding only when they all agree upon a question of faith and morals, or when the doctrine of an indi vidual Father is explicitly and definitely recognized or declared as a rule of faith by the universal Church.
In all other cases their authority is greater or less according to the arguments alleged in support of their opinion, and should never be lightly rejected. These restrictions will suffice, on the one hand, to prevent all subjective arbitrary use of the Fathers in theology, and, on the other, to give as free and wide a scope as possible to scientific theology.
Cf. § 9. — See Franzelin, detrad. div., Thes. 14-15.
§ 12. Authority of the Fathers in Expounding Holy Scripture.
As the consent of the holy Fathers represents the mind of the universal Church (sensus universalis Ecclesise), which was infused into her by the Apostles, and which is identical with that intended by the Holy Ghost, it follows that the unanimous explanation of Holy Scripture given by the Fathers, is of the same author ity as that of the Church herself. It is therefore un lawful to depart or differ from it. St. Leo says, " It is not lawful to understand Scripture otherwise than the blessed Apostles and our Fathers have learnt or taught." "Non licet aliter de Scripturis divinis sapere, quam beati Apostoli et Patres nostri didice-
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runt atque docuerunt." * Again, the Council of Trent gives the following warning: " Let no one, trusting to his own wisdom, in matters appertaining to faith or morals, and the building up of Christian doctrine, dare, by twisting the Sacred Scriptures to his own sense, to interpret" them against the unani mous consent of the Fathers." " Nemo suae prudentise innixus in rebus fidei et morum, ad gedi- ficationem doctrinse Christianse pertinentium,S. Scrip- turam ad suos sensus contra unanimem consensum Patrum interpretari audeat." f And the Vatican Council not only renewed this Tridentine decree, but also explained thus its full sense and bearing: " In matters of faith and morals appertaining to the build ing up of Christian doctrine, that is to be held as the true sense of Scripture which holy Mother Church has held and holds, whose office it is to judge of the true sense and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures ; and, therefore, no one is allowed to interpret that same Sacred Scripture against this sense, or against the unanimous consent of the Fathers. ' ' t ' Ut in rebus fidei et morum, ad sedificationem doctrinse Christianse pertinentium, is pro vero sensu sacrse Scripturse habendus sit, quern tenuit et tenet S. mater Ecclesia, cujus est judicare de vero sensu et interpretatione Scripturarum sanctarurn, atque ideo nemini licere, contra hunc sensum, aut contra unanimem consensum Patrum ipsam Scripturam sanctam interpretari. "J
From these decrees of the Church we may deduce the following principles : —
(1.) If the Fathers, in expounding a passage, do
* Leo M., Ep. 8, c. 1.
t Concil. Trid., Sess. IV., Decret. de usu ss. libror.
I Concil. Vat., Sess. III., cap. 2., De revelatione.
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not agree, it is lawful to explain it according to one's own well-grounded opinion.
(2.) The concordant explanation of Scripture by the holy Fathers is binding only in subjects of faith and morals, but not in other scientific questions. (Cfr. § 11.)
(3.) The degree of authority to be given to a Father in the explanation of Holy Scripture, is in proportion to his learning, sanctity, and the honor or approba tion accorded to him by the Church. (Cf. § 10.)
To St. Jerome belongs very special distinction and authority, for the Church speaks of him as her great est teacher in the exposition of Holy Scripture : u In exponendis sacris Scripturis Doctorem maximum." ~ Editions and Literature. — Nat. B. Argon. , De optima methodo legendorum Eccles. Patrum, P. 3, c. 4. — Fessler-Jungmann I.e. § 15. — Reithmayr, Biblische Hermeneutik. Kempten 1874. §§ 31-33.
§ 13. Authority of the Fathers in Ascetic or Pastoral Theology.
In order to determine their authority in these two branches of theology, we have to consider, in the first place, whether the principles laid down, and the means pointed out by them for the guidance of souls, are such as to have been either formally or explicitly, or at least implicitly, revealed by God. If that be the case, the holy Fathers enjoy the like authority in ascetic and pastoral theology, as in questions of faith or morals (Cf. § 11). But when the principles and means set forth are merely based upon conclu sions drawn from revealed truths (conclusiones vir- tualiter et implicite revelatse), or founded upon psy chological principles, or depending upon external
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circumstances, then the authority of the Fathers varies. In the first instance, it is very great indeed, for they were able to draw their conclusions from revealed truths with an assurance proportionate to their com prehension of the sacred truths. In the second in stance, the authority is less, but still sufficiently grave, inasmuch as the writers had much experience, if not in theoretical, at least in practical psychology. In the third instance, much will depend upon whether the circumstances under which they lived and wrote are the same or similar to those of our own times. If so, the principles and practical rules laid down by them still hold good. In the contrary case, the spirit, rather than the letter of their words, is to be studied and followed. Cf. Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 15.
§ 14. Relation of the Fathers to Holy Scripture and the Church.
1. As regards the relation of the writings of the holy Fathers to the Sacred Scriptures, we may say, that though both have the same object, namely, to explain revealed truths, and though both are acknowl edged by the Church as trustworthy interpreters and witnesses of revelation, nevertheless there is a great and material difference between them. The sacred writers are one and all inspired, and each of their dicta represents infallible truth, which is not the case with the Fathers or their dicta.* So far, the Sacred
* The author here is not quite explicit enough, but there is no doubt that he means to deny to the Fathers both the gift of inspiration and the gift of infallibility in each particu lar statement. (R.)
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Scriptures are immeasurably superior to the works of the Fathers. On the other hand, the Fathers, as the organs of tradition, treat of many things appertaining to faith which are not found in Holy Writ. More over, they unfold the contents of Holy Scripture in all their parts and show clearly how particular truths of faith are contained in the written Word of God.
2. Concerning the relations of the Fathers and of Scripture to the Church, it may be said that both stand on the same level. For as the Church bears infallible witness to the fact of inspiration and to the number of divinely inspired books, and unerringly explains their sense, so, in like manner, does she witness to and interpret with the same absolute infallibility the divine and Apostolic tradition contained in the patristic writings. From this twofold source, the Church, under the guidance of the Holy Ghost, ever draws forth the truth, and proposes it to the faithful as God's own word, to be accepted and held with absolute certainty.*
Cf . Vine. Lirin. , Commonit. , c. 23.
CHAPTER III. CRITICISM IN PATHOLOGY.
§ 15. Notion of Criticism.
1. Criticism in general may be defined as that sci ence which teaches us how to distinguish truth from error. As applied to literary works, criticism means
* The final sentence of this paragraph in the German original has been omitted as irrelevant to the subject. (B.)
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the knowledge and application of those rules by which we can distinguish the genuine and authentic from the spurious and substituted works of an author. Patrological criticism, therefore, has to set forth the principles which enable us to discern with certainty the genuine patristic works from the spurious, the certain from the doubtful, the complete from the curtailed and mutilated. This criticism is of para mount importance, owing to the existence of a great number of spurious and interpolated works of the Fathers.
2. According to authorship, a work is called gen uine* (opus genuinum), if it has really been com posed by the author whose name it bears ; spurious, or supposititious (spurium, suppositum), if it has been ascribed to, or bears the name of, one who is not the author; doubtful (dubium), when the author is un certain, and the reasons alleged for or against its genuineness are evenly balanced.
3. According to its contents, a work is called gen uine, when it contains neither more nor less than the original (opus sincerum) ; it is called not genuine, or false (adulteratum), either when it contains anything that has been inserted by a strange hand (opus inter- polatum), or when any part of it has been curtailed, suppressed, or omitted (opus mutilatum) ; it is styled entire or integral (opus integrum), if no essential portion has been abstracted. The name of fragments
* The author does not use the word authentic, which is strangely absent from a treatise like this, and would be par ticularly so in English, where the word seems to be now commonly used as synonymous with genuine, though there are those, I believe, who carefully distinguish between a genuine (jvyaws) and an authentic (au&£vrr}$) woik. (R.)
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(fragmenta), is given to parts of a work. Such writings as have been certainly written by some definite author, but have not been handed down to our own times, are called lost (deperdita).
4. With regard to form, the works of the Fathers are either autographs (autographa), that is, written by their own hand, or originals (originalia), when only dictated by them. The transcriptions of the origi nal works are called copies (copiee, manuscripta), and their value will depend upon their age and accurate correspondence to the original. They may exist in manuscript (codices manuscript!), or in print ; in the latter case, if simply printed, they are called " codices impressi ; " but if printed from a selection and com parison of a number of the best codices, they are called " codices editi ; " those that have been printed first being termed " codices principes."
Cf. Nat. B. Argon. I. c., P. II, c. 16. — Wiest 1. c, §§ 15-19. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. §§ 17-18.
§ 16. Causes of Substitution, Interpolation and Loss of Patristic Works.
1. One of the most frequent causes of substitution is to be found in the unscrupulous conduct of here tics, who, in order to impart weight and authority to their false doctrines, or to obtain easy currency for them, published books under the names of celebrated Fathers.
As a second cause, we may name the blind and false piety of certain members of the Church, who thought they would render a service to her cause, and refute heresies more effectively, by composing ortho dox works, and passing them under the name of a
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Father, or again, by giving to a modern production the weight and name of an old and renowned writer.
A third cause of substitution was often the ignorance, fraud, and covetousness of copyists, who, when they found in one volume or collection various writings, together with those of a Father, would not hesitate to ascribe them all to him ; or again, confused authors of the same name, or even deliberately affixed to their own copies the^ more celebrated name of a Father, in order to enhance their authority, reputation, and value.
It has even happened that works were substituted for the mere pleasure of deceiving others. Some times, by a mere blunder, the persons introduced as chief actors or speakers in a work have been mistaken for its authors, especially in cases where the book bears the name of the principal actor, as in the " Octavius " by Minucius Felix.
2. The interpolation of works may be due, first, to the malice of heretics, who have fraudulently intro duced into them heretical sentences, or excluded those that were orthodox; secondly, to the temerity of critics, who have arbitrarily altered what did not suit their own ideas ; thirdly, to the heedlessness of copy ists, who often omit a line, or copy entire passages incorrectly; finally, also, to time, which has been a fruitful source of alteration in the manuscripts, during the long lapse of years.
3. The loss of so many patristic writings is chiefly due to the evil influence of particular epochs of bar barism, to the accidents of war, devastations and fire, and, especially in the case of the earlier writings, to the Christian persecutions.
Cf. Wiest 1. c. § 6-14. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 19.
44 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
§ 17. Criteria, or Marks of Genuineness and Spuriousness.
Those marks or criteria which enable us to judge of the genuineness or authenticity of a work, are called the positive principles of criticism ; and those by which we discover its spuriousness, the negative. Both, again, are divided into internal and external marks, according as they are contained in the work itself, or are drawn from other sources.*
1. Among the external marks of genuineness, we may number, in the first place, the agreement of the various codices as to the author. If a number of codices, especially the more ancient ones, indicate one and the same author, and if there be no special reason for attributing the work to a writer other than the one recorded on the title page, then the work must be considered as genuine. Exceptions to this rule may not be presumed, but have to be proved.
A further external mark of authenticity is to be sought in the testimony of the author himself, or in that of any other contemporary writer, as for instance, a friend of his early days, or a pupil who is free from any suspicion of fraud. Such testimony is still more valuable if confirmed by subsequent trustworthy writers.
The internal criterium for the genuineness of a work consists in the similarity of method and style, in the
* The author's definition of internal and external marks is not very clear and distinct, but, from the explanation which follows, we gather that the internal marks are drawn only from the character, style, and contents of the works, while all other signs, even when found in the work itself, are ranked as external. (R. )
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agreement of the contents, or subject-matter, with the condition of the times when the book is supposed to have been written, and also with the temper, genius, character, and life of the author to whom it is attrib uted. This criterium, however, is not of itself abso lutely decisive, but affords only a greater or less probability, as the case may be. But if supported by external testimony, it is a safe and certain test of genuineness.
2. The chief mark of spuriousness is to be found in the fact, that a work does not harmonize with the style, character, and times of the supposed author. Thus, works in which mention is made of persons, events, religious rites, and such like, which clearly belong to later times, are to be considered as spuri ous, or, at least, interpolated ; and such is also the case if the style of composition differs strikingly from that of the Father to whom the work is ascribed, or from that of the period to which it is supposed to belong.
Smaller variations of style, however, are not un usual in one and the same author.
A further sign of spuriousness lies in the total absence of witnesses, i. e., documents and ancient writers. Thus, if a work bears the name of a certain author, while all existing manuscripts and codices mention another, it must be regarded as spurious. But if some codices mention one and some another, then the genuineness of the work is doubtful. And the same must be said of a work ascribed to a dis tinguished Father, of which, in spite of many occa sions, no mention is made for several centuries by any ancient writer. It must be observed, however, that this argument drawn from silence (argumentum ex
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silentio), must always be employed with great pru dence.
Editions and Literature. — Wiest 1. c. § 12. — Dupin, Nouv. biblioth., partie seconde de la Preface, pp. 9-18. — Hefele, in the Tiibinger Quartalschrift (Jahrg. 1842), pp. 438-442. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. §§ 20, 21. — De Smedt, Principes de la critique his- torique. Liege 1883. — Nirschl, Propnedeutik der Kirchengesch. Mainz 1888. §§ 15-20.
§ 18. Hides for the Application of Criticism.
In order to apply correctly the principles laid down above and more surely to discern the real author of a work, the following rules must be observed : —
1. In the first place, we must carefully observe the name of the author given by the codices or manu scripts, and then proceed to consider their antiquity, number, condition, and agreement.
2. Jn the next place, we have to see whether the contents of the work are in accordance with the mind and style of the author and with the time of composi tion. If any want of harmony be apparent, then the matter will require thorough examination.
3. Finally, the testimony of ancient writers is to be brought to bear upon the subject.
If these rules be observed and if they all point to one and the same conclusion, we are able to form a reliable and decisive judgment as to the author of a work.
In order to carry out this examination in a proper manner, the Patrologist should observe the following conditions : —
1, Having collected and classed all the testimonies
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bearing on the point, he must accurately and impar tially weigh and balance the reasons and arguments on both sides.
2. He must be intimately acquainted with the sub ject-matter upon which he is to pronounce ; that is to say, he must be thoroughly cognizant of the codices, and their conditions and peculiarities, of the history of the times, as well as of the language in which the documents are written.
3. In passing judgment upon any work, he must be animated with the purest love of truth, uninfluenced by personal preference or prejudice.
Cfr. MaWlon, Traite des etudes monastiques, P. II. chap. XIII. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 22.
CHAPTER IV.
USE OF THE FATHERS. § 19. Use of the Fathers in General.
The use of the Holy Fathers may be either public or private, according as they are used either by an assembled council of the Church, and by the Pope when speaking ex cathedra, in his capacity of teacher of all the faithful (omnium Christianorum Pastoris et Doctoris munere fungens), or merely by individual theologians. Their public use is generally restricted to matters of faith, morals, and Church discipline, and mainly serves to prove with absolute certainty the truth, when assailed or called in question, of the dogmas of the Church. Such an appeal to the Fathers neces sarily supposes, as we have seen, their unanimity (cfr.
48 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
§ 9). But private use of the Fathers may be made for diverse ends and purposes : either to acquire a clearer knowledge of some dogmatic truth, and to prove and explain it more forcibly ; or to obtain suitable moral precepts for various circumstances of life, or to find out the meaning of passages and portions of Holy Scripture. Thus, according to a fourfold purpose, we may distinguish the private use of the Fathers as dogmatical, moral, ascetical or exegetical.
Cfr. Mdbillon 1. c. Part II. chapters III. IV. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 28.
§ 20. Use in Matters of Dogma.
In matters of dogma the holy Fathers may be studied for the following purposes : —
1. In order to draw from their works doctrinal truths, which, though not yet denned as articles of faith, could, nevertheless, not be denied or impugned without temerity.
2. In order to confirm and strengthen our faith by the testimony of Christian antiquity, and to guard against doctrinal innovations.
3. In order to understand thoroughly the funda mental dogmas of our salvation, such as the Blessed Trinity, the Incarnation, the Divinity of Christ and the Holy Ghost, and so forth, which have been treated with particular skill by certain Fathers.
4. In order to render ourselves familiar with the arguments employed by the holy Fathers, to prove the articles of faith, and to defend them against heretics.
5. And lastly, in order to consider how the argu ments by which heretics have impugned the various
MANUAL OF PATROLOGY. 49~
Catholic truths, may be refuted both by authority and reason.
Cfr. Wiest 1. c. §§ 239-245, 280.
§ 21. Use in Morals and Ascetics.
In morals, also, a rich harvest may be gathered from the works of the Fathers, for they are replete with moral precepts, and suggest motives for conduct and action. Some of the Fathers, too, have written entire treatises on particular virtues, and laid special stress in their Biblical commentaries upon the moral sense of Scrip ture passages. Nor are they of less service in the departments of ascetical, pastoral, and homiletical theology. For those Fathers who were conspicuous for their piety, have left us most vivid and beautiful explanations in their writings, and especially in their letters, not only as to how each individual soul may direct itself, but also how others may be led, kept, and advanced in the way of Christian perfection. Again, from their homilies and sermons we may learn how the truths of the faith can be ex plained and proved, and practically applied to the e very-day life of the Christian. As, however, many of the remarks of the Fathers are applicable only to the circumstances of the times in which they lived, their homilies must be judiciously chosen, and as far as possible, applied to the wants and moral condi tions of our own time.
Cfr. Wiest I. c. §§ 246-255, 281. — Fessler-Jung- tyiann \. c. § 29.
50 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
§ 22. Use in Biblical Exegesis.
1. It is usual to distinguish a twofold sense in Scripture, the literal and the figurative or typical, and accordingly, also, two kinds of interpretations, viz. : —
(a.) The literal or grammatical-historical interpre tation, which considers the contents of Holy Writ according to the proper meaning of the words,* in the light of the context and of the historical facts narrated, (in sensu grammatico, logico, historico).
(&. ) The figurative, or typical, or allegorical- mystical interpretation, which considers the contents of Holy "Writ as signs, i. e., types and figures of the grace, doctrine, and Church of Christ, and of the future life.
The Fathers have not neglected or disregarded either of these two methods of explanation, but have cultivated them both. Some preferred one to the other, while others, more or less, combined the two. The Fathers of the School of Antioch specially culti vated the literal, or historical interpretation ; those of the Alexandrian School, the mystical. Others, like St. Chrysostom, St. Augustine, St. Gregory the Great, united both methods.
2. The exegetical labors of the Fathers are seen 'more particularly in their commentaries on Holy
Scripture ; also in their homilies, in which they explain to the people certain portions of Scripture, or dwell upon some Scripture character ; again, in their scholia,
* It would be more accurate to say te according to the literal meaning of the words, whether proper or metaphori cal.'* The proper meaning is generally opposed to the metaphorical, but the author does not take the word
(R.)
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which were short explanations of difficult passages ; or again, in prefaces and summaries to different books, or in answers and treatises about special portions or passages.
3. Special mention should be made of what are called " CatensePatrum," which are exegetical works, containing a running explanation of single passages of Holy Scripture, extracted from various Fathers. But as the quotations are not always authentic, it is neces sary to consult and compare the better editions. The most celebrated of these works is the " Golden Chain, " a treatise on the four Gospels by St. Thomas Aquinas (Catena aurea in quattuor evangelia), consisting of selections from more than eighty Greek and Latin Fathers.
Cfr. Fessler-Jangmann 1. c. § 30. — Permaneder 1. c. § 90. — Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexicon, art. "Catenen." Vol.11. 2. ed.
§ 23. Selection of Fathers.
1. The works of the Fathers being too numerous to be mastered by any single individual during his life time, a selection of the best and most suitable is therefore requisite. As a rule, we ought to read first those works of Fathers in which the doctrines of faith or morals are treated with great brevity and conciseness; or again, those that have been written for special states of life, and which may be read and understood without a great amount of theological or archaeological knowledge; as, for instance, the Com- monitorium of St. Vincent of Lerins, the Confessions of St. Augustine, the book De Sacerdotio of St. Chry- sostora, and the like,
52 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
Those who are occupied or interested in the de fense of Christian doctrines against the attacks of heathen and Jewish writers, should choose the inesti mable treatise of Origen against Celsus ("Contra Cel- sum"), the " Pricparatio et demonstratio Evangel- ica" of St. Eusebius, the Apologetic (" Apologeti- cum' ' ) of Tertullian , the "Institutiones' ' of Lactantius, and the writings of the Apologists : Justin, Minucius Felix, Cyprian, and Arnobius.
2. The following rank foremost as controversialists against heretics : Irenseus against the Gnostics ; Hip- polytus and Tertullian against the Anti-Trinitarians ; Jerome against Jovinian, Vigilantius and Helvidius ; John Damascene against the Iconoclasts.
3. The student of dogma will find the most minute and acute disputations on
(a.) The Trinity, in the writings of Athanasius, Basil, Augustine, Hilary, and others.
(6.) The Creation, in the writings of Irenoeus, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustine, Basil, and Ambrose.
(c.) The Incarnation, in Athanasius and Leo the Great.
(d) Grace, in Augustine, (Doctor gratise), Prosper, and Fulgentius.
(e.) The Sacraments, and especially the Holy Eucharist, in Ambrose, Augustine, and Chrysostom (the Doctor of the Eucharist).
(/). The Church, in Cyprian and Augustine.
4. The subject of morals is treated by St. Basil and St. Gregory the Great in their books on Morals, by St. Ambrose in his book " De officiis," by St. Augustine in his letters. Then again, there are treatises on particular virtues, such as patience or charity, by single Fathers, as St. Cyprian, St. Angus-
MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY. 53
tine, St. Basil, St. Chrysostom ; or on particular vices, as envy (De invidia), or on particular states, as vir ginity, the priesthood (De virginibus, De sacerdotio). On monastic asceticism, we have the works of Cassian, Basil, Macarius the Great, and John Climacus.
5. For purposes of exegesis, the best principles of hermeneutics are contained in the Prefaces of St. Jerome, and in his " Epistola ad Paulinum," as well as in the books of St. Augustine, " De doctrina Christiana."
6. Upon Church discipline, valuable explanations are given in the writings of the disciples of the Apostles, the letters of St. Cyprian, St. Augustine, St. Jerome, St. Gregory the Great, etc.
7. In homiletic subjects, the finest specimens are afforded by St. Chrysostom, St. Gregory of Nazianzen, St. Gregory of Nyssa, St. Leo the Great, St. Peter Chrysologus.
Cf. Wiest 1. c. §§ 157-188. —Ninchl 1. c. § 14.
§ 24. Preliminary Conditions to Profitable Use.
Although the works of the Fathers, speaking gen erally, do not present such grave difficulties as the Holy Scriptures, yet a certain standard of moral and intellectual culture is requisite for the full and com plete understanding of them. In order to read the Fathers with profit, it is necessary not only to hold them and their doctrines in the highest esteem, but also to have an intense love of truth, and a deep attachment to Catholic principles, especially the rule of faith. For since the end and object of all study is to know the truth, there is no safer guide to direct our scientific pursuits, than steadfast adherence to
54 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
the principles and rule of faith. Moreover, as the Fathers almost continually speak the language of Holy Scripture, the reader of their works must acquire an intimate knowledge of the Sacred Books, and also strive more and more to bring his mind into con formity with that of the Fathers. He must, finally, implore the light of the Holy Spirit, that what has been written by His divine assistance, may also be rightly comprehended by the aid of His illumination (James I. 5).
Cf . Wiest 1. c. § 302-303. — Permaneder 1. c. § 232-233.
§ 25. Manner and Way of Using the Fathers.
To derive profit from the perusal of the holy Fathers, the following rules should be observed : —
I. Confine yourself to one work at a time, but read it carefully and repeatedly, until you have grasped the main subject and method of treatment, and are able at least to define the outlines, or principal head ings of both.
II. Endeavor to carefully impress upon your mem ory the leading points of the subject of the book. In this you will be greatly assisted by the practice of noting down the words of the author himself, his pur pose and aim, his train of thought, and the course of his arguments or proofs.
III. Make a list of the most important passages (spicilegium repertorium), either in alphabetical order, or in any other order that commends itself to you.
IV. Pay great attention to the meaning of each word, and to the sense of entire passages or treatises.
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As regards the meaning of words, it is to be noticed that the Fathers make use of words both in the popu lar and in the philosophical sense of the times. Again, occasionally they do not employ words in the usual and proper sense, but in the sense given to them by heretics ; thus it may happen that they use one and the same word in quite different meanings. Furthermore, the literal and proper expressions are to be well dis tinguished from the figurative or metaphorical.
In order to rightly apprehend the sense of a patristic word, or a particular passage, the following rules will be of help : —
(1) Consider well the aim and purpose of the work. Very often the true sense of a difficult passage may be gathered from the aim and object of the entire work.
(2) See for whom, or against whom, the work is written, under what circumstances, and upon what occasion.
(3) Take also into consideration at what part or period of his life a Father composed this or that work.
(4) Try to explain obscure and doubtful passages by those which are clear and explicit occurring else where in the writings of the same Father, or in the works of contemporary Fathers. Incorrect or inac curate passages of a Father have to be interpreted in the light of the correct and accurate ones, and should be brought into harmony with the writer's general doctrine and orthodoxy of faith. But if it is impos sible to harmonize them with the doctrine of the Church, then they must be set aside with all due respect to the author.
(5) We must discover whether a Father is merely
56 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
putting forth an opinion, a conjecture, an objection, or whether he is making a dogmatic statement.
Cf. Nat. B. Argon. 1. c. P. II, c. 2, 10; P. Ill, c. 13.— Wiest I c. §§ 283-301.
CHAPTER V.
MEANS NECESSARY FOR UNDERSTANDING THE FATHERS.
§ 2G. Causes of Difficulties.
The difficulties which meet us in reading the Fathers arise partly from the subject-matter discussed, which is at times so lofty that it can scarcely be grasped by the human mind, or expressed in words ; as for in stance, the doctrine on the Blessed Trinity, free will and grace, predestination. In part, also, these dif ficulties arise from the form of the patristic works themselves, inasmuch as they may be written in a dead or unfamiliar language, with peculiar phraseology and construction, peculiar method and manner of argu ment. Obscurity, too, will often arise from the fact that the reader is entirely ignorant of the external circumstances under which the Fathers have written.
It is impossible fully to comprehend the letters and writings of the Fathers when one is ignorant of the occasion which gave rise to them, of their date, of the true author, or of the person to whom, or against whom, they are directed.
Cf. Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 23.
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§ 27. Scientific Means.
1. In order to derive real spiritual profit from the perusal of the patristic works, it is above all neces sary to have a sound knowledge of Latin and Greek, because most of these works are written in one or the other of these two languages. Again, all the Fathers did not write in the elegant and pure style of the Greek and Latin classics; on the contrary, they frequently employed the expressions of the Greek and Latin translations of the Scriptures, and were often compelled to coin new words to express Christian truths and practices. Hence it follows that a knowl edge of the non-classical form of these languages is likewise necessary. The knowledge of Syriac and Hebrew, too, is highly desirable, the former for under standing the writings of Syrian authors, the latter for some works of St. Jerome. Valuable helps are afforded by glossaries and good translations.
2. An acquaintance with the ancient systems of philosophy, ancient profane history, and Greek and Roman mythology is likewise requisite, as many ecclesiastical writers, even after their conversion to Christianity, did not at once divest themselves of all the ideas and views of heathen philosophy, but have left numerous traces of them in their compositions.
Again, in their apologies, they often refer to con temporary events, or to mythological fables, for the purpose of exposing the absurdity of pagan worship.
3. The chief means, however, is solid theological training, that is, a thorough knowledge of dogmatical and moral theology, without which the patristic writ ings cannot be properly understood, nor even safely read. Moreover, as the Fathers made the most ex-
58 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
tensive and varied use of Holy Scripture, a sound knowledge of the Bible and of Biblical exegesis is a great help to the Patrologist.
4. Lastly, a knowledge of Church history is of necessity. This will bring home to our minds the events to which the Fathers often allude, the circum stances under which they wrote, the heresies which they combated, the lawful councils which they de fended, and the unlawful which they rejected, as well as the internal and external conditions and surround ings of their own lives.
Cf. Wiest 1. c. §§ 304-310. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. §§ 24-25.
§ 28. Literary Means.
Among these we reckon in the first place the choice of the best special editions of the Fathers, and the various collections of patristic works, such as " Bib- liotheca," " Monumenta," " Spicilegia Patrum ; " or again, " Analecta Vetera," " Collectanea Veterum Monumentorum. ' '
1. By editions of the Fathers are to be understood those literary and critical labors in which the gen uineness of the work is carefully examined and proved, and difficulties as they [occur fairly met, and where the original text is restored as correctly as pos sible, and explanatory notes are introduced. The editions may be divided into three classes, according to the period to which they belong : —
I. First or Oldest Editions, i. e., those before
A. D. 1500. II. Intermediate Editions, i. e., those from A.
D. 1500-1600.
III. Recent or Modern Editions, from A. D. 1600 downward.
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The First (editiones principes, incunabula) are certainly not remarkable for elegance, but are, never theless, very valuable and desirable. Amongst the Intermediate Editions, those issued by the learned book-seller Robert Stephen (d. 1559), and Henry Stephen (d. 1594), of Paris, hold a high rank, on account of the pleasant and correct types, as well as the improved text ; likewise, though in a lesser degree, those issued by Froben (d. 1527), and Erasmus of Rotterdam (d. 1536), at Basle. Among the Modern Editions, those by the Maurists (French Benedictine Congregation of St. Maurus), the Oratorians, and the Jesuits, are not only conspicuous for beauty of type and excellence of paper, but hold also the first place on account of the newly discovered manuscripts which they have utilized. These Editions contain: (1) lengthy biographies of the holy Fathers ; (2) sketches of their genuine works, excluding all unauthentic ones; (3) Latin translations of the Greek texts; (4) expositions of their doctrine ; (5) explanations of diffi cult passages, and (6) carefully executed catalogues of subjects and names. The Paris editions are better than those of Venice.
Speaking generally, the Modern Editions are pref erable to the more ancient for obvious reasons. In the first place, they contain certain writings that have only recently been discovered. In the next place, the rules of criticism are more thoroughly applied with regard to the questions of genuineness and authen ticity. Lastly, they give a better Latin version of the Greek text, and are provided with explanatory notes, chronological tables, etc.
2. As regards the collections of works of the Fathers, they are of diverse kinds. Some are general,
60 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
some special, some Greek and Latin, some only Latin ; some are dogmatical and polemical, others ascetical and homiletical. Among these collections the following deserve to be especially noticed : —
(a.) Maxima Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum, 27 Tom. Fol. Lugd. 1677.
(b.) Bibliotheca Veterum Patrum, 14 Tom. Fol. Venet. 1765, by the Oratorian Gallandi.
(c.) Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-Vaticana, 4 Tom. Fol. Romoe 1719, by the Marionite Joseph Simon Assemani, containing Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Turkish, Hebrew, and Armenian writings.
(d.) Collectio Nova Patrum, 2 Tom. Fol. Paris 1706, by Bernard de Montfaucon, O. S. B.
(e.) Spicilegium Veterum Aliquot Scriptorum, 3 Tom. Fol. Paris 1783, by d'Achery, O. S. B.
(f.) Vetera Analecta, 4Tom. 4°, Paris 1675-1685; Edit. Nova Fol. Paris 1723, by Mabillon, O. S. B.
(g.) Epistolse Rom. Pontificum, edited by Peter Coustant, O. S. B. Paris 1721, and continued till A. D. 523 by Thiel, Lipsise 1867.
(h.) Collectio Selecta SS. Ecclesise Patrum Com- plectens Exquisitissima Opera, cura Caillau et Guillon, 133 Tom. 8V0. Paris 1829 sqq.
(i. ) Nova Collectio Scriptorum Veterum, 10 Tom. 4°. Romae 1825. Also, Spicilegium Rom., 10 Tom. 8V0. Romse 1839, and Nova Patrum Collectio, 7 Tom. 4°. Romoe 1852, all by the Vatican Librarian, Cardinal Angelo Mai.
(j.) Spicilegium Solesmense, 4 Tom. 4°. Paris 1852 sqq. ; Analecta Sacra SpicilegioSolesmensiParata, 6 Tom. 4°. Paris 1876-1888, and Analecta Novissima (containing chiefly mediaeval documents), 2 Tom. 4°. Paris 1885-1888, all by Cardinal Pitra, O. S. B.
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All these collections, however, are surpassed in magnitude and completeness by the Cursus Completus Patrologise, of the Abbe Migne (d. 1875).
This monumental work, most valuable, in spite of many typographical deficiencies, is a collection of Latin Fathers and ecclesiastical authors from Ter- tullian to Innocent III., in 217 vols. 4°, besides a copi ous index in 4 vols., and of Greek authors from the time of the Apostolic Fathers to the Council of Flo rence, in 162 vols. 4°, together with a Latin translation, and many valuable treatises and learned discussions, but without an index.
Among the manual editions of works of the Fathers published in recent times, the following two deserve special mention : —
(1) SS. Patrum Opuscula Selecta ad usum praeser- tim Studiosorum Theologize, edidit et comrnentariis auxit H. Hurter, S. J. (Enip., Libraria Wagner. 48 vols. 16mo. Series II. is in 8V0.*
(2) (For those who read German.) Bibliothek der Kirchenvater, in 80 vols. 12mo, besides 2 vols. of gen eral index, published at Kempten in Bavaria, the Ger man translation and edition being by Reithmayr and Thalhofer. This work is approved and recommended by the whole German episcopate.
Most valuable also are the critical editions of the
* The " Opuscula Patrum," by 77. Hurter, S. J., deserve to be specially recommended to all students of divinity. From long practical experience, I can testify to their eminent use fulness. Not only have the texts been aptly chosen by the author for the student's special purposes, but are also pro vided with learned introductions, notes, and dissertations, the perusal of which will serve the student as a constant repetition of his theology. (R.)
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Latin text of ecclesiastical writers, published at the expense of the Hoyal Imperial Academy of Sciences in Vienna, under the title " Corpus Scriptorum Eccle- siasticorum Latinorum. Vindobonse, 26 vols. 8°. 1866. sqq.*
For the practical study of theology, or for homi- letical purposesr the most valuable collections are the so-called Anthologise, or Chrestomathise, in which a number of patristic principles, maxims, and dicta, bearing upon particular points, are gathered together.
Among the most noteworthy we may mention : —
Cigheri, "Veterum Patrum theologia universa," 13 torn. 4°. Florentise 1791.
Thomasius, u Instit. theolog. antiquorum Patrum," 4 torn. 4°. Romse 1709; and Caillau et Guillon, "Thesaurus Patrum, floresque doctorum ecclesise," 8 torn. Paris 1823.
* It is noteworthy, too, that the Prussian government has recently instituted a commission of learned men for the pur pose of editing the works of the Fathers and other ancient writers. (R.)
PART II. PATROLOGY PROPER,
§ 29. Division.
The second or special part of this book, comprising Patrology proper, may be divided into four epochs, more or less representing the course of development of Christian literature : EPOCH I. Rise of Christian literature, till the year 150.
" II. Development " " from 150-325.
" III. Full Growth " " " 325-461.
" IV. Decline " " " 461-700.
FIRST EPOCH.
RISE OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE. AGE OF THE APOSTOLIC FATHEES.
§ 30. The Apostolic Fathers.
1. The name of Apostolic Fathers is given to those writers who were disciples of the Apostles, and who, in writing, have handed down to posterity the Apos tolic doctrine pure and genuine. Such are the author of the Didache, or Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles, Barnabas, Clement of Rome, Hermas, Ignatius, Poly- carp, the unknown author of the Epistle to Diognetus, and Papias.
2. The Apostolic Fathers have left us but few writ ings, and these almost exclusively in the shape of
(63)
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letters. The reason of this is to be sought in the fact that the Christian religion did not present itself to them as the result of human investigation, but as a divine revelation, attested by miracles, and so fully satisfying the spiritual needs of the believers, as to obviate the necessity of proofs derived from scien tific demonstration.
3. Nevertheless, even in those scanty literary mon uments, we are able to trace already the groundwork of the different forms of future theology. In Clement we discover the first germs of Canon Law ; in Barna bas the first attempt at dogmatic theology ; in Igna tius and in the Epistle to Diognetus the outlines of apologetics; in the Interpretations ('£^^££9, Enar- rationes) of Papias, the beginnings of Biblical exe gesis ; and in the Shepherd of Hermas, the rudiments of ascetical and moral theology. It is noteworthy, too, that Clement, in his expositions of the moral law, follows in the footsteps of St. Paul, Ignatius in those of St. John, and Hermas in those of St. Peter.
Though small in extent and in number, still, as the earliest monuments of Christian antiquity and first fruits of Christian thought, these works of the Apostolic Fathers, written in Greek, are of immense value. They treat principally of the religious con dition of Christian communities, of grace and truth as manifested in Christ, of faith, of brotherly love, of obedience to ecclesiastical superiors, and of the evil of sin and heresy.
Editions and Literature. — Cotelerius, SS. Patrum Apost. opp. omuia. 2 torn. fol. Paris 1672. — Dressel, Patrum Apost. opp. ed. II. Lipsiae 1863. — Gebhardt-HarnacJc-Zalm, Patrum Apost. opp. ed. III..
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Lipsiaa 1877. — Funk, Opera Patrum Apost. editio post Hefelianam quartam sexta. Tubingse 1887. - G. Jacobson, S. Clem. Roin., S. Ignatii, S. Polycarpi, PP. Apostolicorum quae sup. etc. 2 vols. 8V0. Oxonii 1838. ed. 4. 1863. —Bp. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, comprising the Epistles (genuine and spurious) of Clement of Rome ; the Epistles of St. Ignatius, of St. Polycarp, the Teaching of the Apos tles, etc. Revised texts with short introductions and English translations. Edited and completed by J. R. Harmer. London 1891. 8V0. — A. Roberts and J. Donaldson, Ante-Nicene Christian Library. The Apostolic Fathers. Vol. I. T. and T. Clark, Edin burgh.
§ 31. Doctrine of the Twelve Apostles.
1. The author of the Doctrine of the Twelve Apos tles (Aida%7) TUJV da>3zxa ^A-xoaroXcov), a work well known to ancient authors, holds the first place amongst the Christian writings of the Apostolic age. Express mention is made of this work both by Greek and Latin authors, such as Eusebius,* St. Athanasius,f the author of the Latin work on the dice-players, J St. Jerome, || and Rufinus.H Many quotations, also, from the "Doctrine of the Apostles" are to be found in the second part of the Epistle of Barnabas, in the Pseudo-Clementine Apostolic Constitutions (book VII), and very clear traces of the work are apparent in the compositions of Justin, Tatian, Clement of Alexandria, Theophilus of Antioch, Origen, Irenseus, Lactantius, and John Climacus. But from the 12th cen-
* Hist. Eccl. III. 25. |] De vir. ill. c. 1.
t Ep. Pasch. 39. f Exp, Symb. App. c,
J De aleatoribus, c. 4.
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tury downwards the " Didache " disappeared, and was believed to be utterly lost, until 1873, when Philotheus Bryennius, at that time Professor and, since 1877, Metropolitan of Nicomedia, discovered in a monastic library at Constantinople a codex, written by Leo the Notary in the year 1056, which contained, besides the Epistle of Barnabas and two Epistles of St. Clement to the Corinthians and some other writings, the AiSayfj) TCOV Scudexa 'Aitoff-6lw<;.
2. According to its contents, the work consists of two parts; the first, from chapter I-VI, treats of the two ways of life and death, that is, of the general duties of a Christian and of whatever is opposed to them ; and from chap. VII-X, of particular duties, especially the administration of baptism, fasting, and the reception of the Holy Eucharist. The second part gives instructions for the admission of brethren, for discerning true and false prophets, for show ing hospitality to Christian pilgrims and strangers, for the maintenance of teachers (apostles), for the choice of "bishops " (priests) and deacons, and for fraternal correction. Chapter XVI closes with an admonition to watchfulness, a description of the doings of the Antichrist (xo^-Aavu?), and the coming of Our Lord.
Concerning the time and place of origin of the work, opinions differ very considerably. While some place it as early as between 50 and 70, others assign it to the middle, or towards the end of the second century. The majority, however, of the learned assume the last quarter of the first century to be the time of its composition, on the ground that the work itself con tains nothing which would point to a later origin, while its author speaks of prophets and Apostles in a way
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that was possible only for a writer of the first century. On other grounds, also, the hypothesis of a later period is untenable.
3. In spite of its small dimensions, the work pos sesses great merits. It is written with admirable simplicity of style, and its subject-matter is of the highest importance to the Catholic theologian ; for it places in his hand an excellent weapon wherewith to defend the traditional doctrine of the Church on the obligation and merit of good works (chp's. VII, VIII, XIII, XV), the necessity of baptism, confession of sins,* the Holy Eucharist, both as sacrament and sacrifice (IV, VII, IX, XIV). It likewise furnishes proof of the lawfulness of baptism per infusionem, " Pour water on the head thrice in the name" . . . . ; f the duty of submission to ecclesiastical superiors, as well as of the divine institution, authority, and visibility of the Church herself (IV, XI, XIII, XV).
In the church thou shalt confess thy sins," — 'Ev 1%0/j.oA.oyyfffl rd napaxrcb/jLaTd GOO, etc., which Funk translates: " Inecclesia conflteberis peccata tua, neque accedes ad orationera tuam in conscientia mala," and Bp. Lightfoot: " In Church thou shalt confess thy trans gressions and shalt not betake thyself to prayer with an evil conscience . " It is noteworthy that with the confession of sins ends the way of life (hasc est via vitse), chap. IV, sentence 12th, and further on, in chap. 14th, first sentence, he says (B. Lightf. Jr.), "and on the Lord's own day, gather yourselves together and break bread, first confessing your transgressions " {Funk translates the Aorist with " post- quam delicta vestra confessi estis") — "that your sacrifice may be pure." (R.)
t vEx%eoy el? ryv xsyatyv rpl$ vdcop $1$ TO ovop.a, etc, (cap. 7).
68 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
Editions and Literature. — Amongst the numerous editions, that by F. X. Funk of Tubingen is deserving of the highest praise, especially on account of the Prolegomena, written in Latin, and containing the most minute researches on different points. — Light- foot-Harmer, as above. — The publication of the Didache by Bryennius has called forth many separate editions, besides a voluminous literature, both in England and abroad. To quote only one or two: J. Heron, The Church of the Sub- Apostolic Age: its life, worship, and organization, in the light of the " Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," London 1888. — J. M. Minasi gives a most excellent commentary in his learned work: La dottrina del Signore pei dodici Apostoli, etc., Roma 1891.
§ 32. St. Barnabas, Apostle.
1. We learn from the Acts of the Apostles,* that Barnabas was a native of Cyprus, that his original name was Joses, or Joseph, that he belonged to the tribe of Levi, and was one of the first Christians who, after the death of Our Lord, sold their possessions and laid the price at the feet of the Apostles. Being a man full of the Holy Ghost and of faith, f he was called by the Apostles to the ministry of the Gospel, in which he labored for a long time at Antioch. Here he was joined by St. Paul, whom he had introduced to the Apostles at Jerusalem, and with whom he continued to labor in Syria and the North of Asia Minor, ex tending Christianity and successfully combating the Judaizing zealots of the law, who, with characteristic
* Acts, IV. 36, 37. f Acts, XI. 24.
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narrowness of mind and utter disregard of the true spirit of the Gospel, thought it necessary to lay the yoke of the Mosaic Law even upon the Gentile con verts. At the Apostolic Council of Jerusalem, both he and St. Paul upheld the decision that the Gentile converts were free from the trammels of the cere monial law. After they had " continued at Antioch, teaching and preaching with many others " * the joy ful tidings of the Gospel, they separated from each other, and Barnabas repaired with Mark to Cyprus, f How long he labored in his native land, where and in what manner he ended his life, is unknown. It is probable that he died in the year 76 ; in any case, not before the destruction of Jerusalem, which event he mentions in the sixteenth chapter of his Epistle.
2. A letter which Origen calls " Catholic Epistle " J (£-Kt(TToAr) xa&ohx-q) has been handed down under the name of St. Barnabas, and to him it is ascribed by the most eminent Christian writers of the first centuries, as Clement of Alexandria, § Eusebius, || Jerome, If and by the Codex Sinaiticus, belonging to the fourth century, and discovered by Tischendorf in a monastery on Mount Sinai. This opinion was adopted and held by such learned writers as Dupin, le Nourry, Pagi, Mohler, Freppel, NirschI, Jungmann, and others. But in more recent times, critics, chiefly Protestant, but also some Catholic, like Natalis Alexander, Ceillier, Tillemont, Hefele, Kayser, Funk, Braunsberger, Bardenhewer, and others, hold that it is not the work of the Apostle Barnabas, but of some
* Acts, XV. 35. § Strom. II. 6, 7.
t Acts, XV. 39. || Hist. Eccl. III. c. 25.
J Contra Celsura, I. 63. T ^e vir. illust. c. 6.
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Alexandrian Jewish convert of the same name. Their arguments against the authenticity of the letter are mostly too trifling to be of any weight, and the author's antipathy to Judaism and his depreciation of the Mosaic Law lose much of their force as proofs against genuineness, on a closer examination of the scope of the Epistle, so that it ma}^ be said that the arguments are chiefly in favor of its authenticity.*
3. This "Catholic Epistle/' which possibly was intended for converts from Judaism, but indirectly also for those from paganism, and for the still uncon verted Jews, consists of two parts, one dogmatic- didactic (c. 1-17) ; the other moral (hortatory or parainetical, c. 18-21). In the first part (c. 1-17), the author, after greeting "his sons and daughters," and after a word of praise for their faith and love, proceeds to show that the Old Covenant was of a merely typical character, and of its very nature a preparation for Christ; that the observance of the Mosaic Law was only pleasing to God inasmuch as it was done in the spirit ; that it was abrogated by the New Covenant only as to the letter, not as to the spirit ; that Sunday had taken the place of the Sabbath- day, being the day of a new spiritual creation ; that the temple of Jerusalem had been destroyed in order to set up in the hearts of Christians another temple, spiritual in character and pleasing to God. In the second part (c. 18-21), he describes, with many quo tations from the " Doctrine of the Apostles," the two
* According to Dr. Otto Bardenhewer, Patrologie, p. 35-36, an overwhelming majority of critics pronounce against the genuineness of the Epistle. He himself holds that the doc trines of the Epistle cannot, except by violence, be brought into harmony with those of St. Paul and the other Apost les. (R.J)
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ways of life, viz. : the way of light and the way of darkness, and shows what the Christian ought to do and avoid, in order to attain future resurrection and eternal happiness. The contents and scope of the entire Epistle form a parallel to St. Paul's Epistle to the Hebrews, while its simplicity and warmth of lan guage remind us rather of the Epistles of St. John. " Stylum revera maiestate Apostolica dignum mate- riamque nascentis Ecclesise rebus accommodatam sapit."*
The first part of the Epistle contains fine passages, in particular, upon the divinity of Christ (c. 5, 7, 12) ; the object of the Incarnation (c. 5 and 14), the nature of justification as an inward sanctification (c. 6, 11, 16), faith working by love (c". 1, 4, 7), and other doctrines.
Editions and Literature. — The same as in the pre ceding paragraph. In the earlier known Greek MSS. of the letter, the first four chapters and a half were wanting, but the deficiencies have been supplied by the discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus, and the afore said Codex of Ph. Bryennius. — The first complete Greek editions were those of Hilgenfeld and Gebhardt (1877 and 1878). — W. Cunningham, The Epistle of St. Barnabas, a Dissertation, including a discussion of its date and authorship. London 1877. — Ceillier, Hist. gen. des auteurs sacres et eccl. I. (ed. 1. Paris, 498-505). — Nirschl, Das Todesjahr des Apostels Bar nabas, im " Katholik," 1881, p. 425; and "Lehr- buch der Patrologie," § 23. — Braunsberger, Der Apostel Barnabas. Mainz 1876. — Funk, in the Tiibin- ger Theol. Quartalschr. 1884, p. 3-33.
* Fessler, Inst. Patr. I. 184.
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§ 33. St. Clement, Bishop of Home.
1. As to the life of this holy Father, the only cer tain facts handed 'down to us from Christian antiquity are, that he had close relations with the holy Apostles Peter and Paul ; that he was Bishop of Rome, and identical with the Clement whom St. Paul mentions as one of his fellow-laborers in the Gospel.* How and when he went to Home, whether he was the immediate successor of St. Peter in the Koman See, or only fol lowed Linus and Cletus, is as uncertain as the asser tion of some old authors, that he was a cousin to the Emperor Domitian and a son of a Roman Senator, and, under marvelous circumstances, died a martyr's death in the sea, about A. D. 100.
2. Amongst the works ascribed to him, the first Epistle to the Corinthians, in 65 chapters, ranks as decidedly authentic, and is one of the finest literary monuments of Christian antiquity. In it, with great force, yet with prudence and gentleness, Clement admonishes the Corinthians, who had been led into dis obedience by factious men. And in order to lead them back to sorrow and penance, to humility, obedi ence, and love, he points to the example of Christ, the evils of envy, and the terrors of the judgment to come.
On the other hand, the second Epistle to the Co rinthians, in 20 chapters, is more than doubtful ; and so are, in a still greater degree, the two "Letters to Virgins." The former contains, in the form of a hom-
* Phil. IV. 3. ..." Help those women that have labored with me in the gospel with Clement and the rest of my fellow-laborers, whose names are in the book of life." (R.)
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ily, pressing exhortations to a truly Christian life, to contempt of a perishable world, to a striving after a blessed eternity, to a warfare against sin, and to works of penance. This letter was not ascribed to St. Clement according to Eusebius, who, indeed, repudi ates the idea, and with regard to style and expression, it differs strikingly from the first Epistle.
Of the two Epistles to Virgins, i. e., the unmarried of both sexes, the first represents the beauty, but also the difficulties, of the state of virginity, and warns against idleness and mixed assemblies, while the sec ond describes the manner of life in the single state, drawing examples from the Scriptures.
This latter Epistle contains, indeed, the same sublime simplicity and beauty as the first Epistle, but by reason of various allusions to events of later date, its authenticity is extremely doubtful.
The five Books of Decretals, the eight Books of Constitutions, and eighty-five Canones Apostolorum, as well as the twenty Homilies and Recognitions, together with an Epitome from them, are decidedly not genuine. The Decretal Letters contain the most excellent instructions upon the liturgy, the authority of the priesthood, and the duties of the faithful, as well as the most earnest admonitions to conversion from error. The first six books of the Constitutions, apparently composed towards the end of the 4th, or beginning of the 5th century, form one single and entire hand-book on religious subjects for priests and faithful, interspersed with many Bibli cal quotations. The seventh book, adorned with many extracts from the ''Doctrine of the Apostles," embraces the outlines of a system of morals ; and the eighth, besides an order of the Mass, gives instruc-
74 MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY.
tions for conferring the various orders, with many formulas for blessings, and also some prayers. The eighty-five "Canones" joined to the eighth book, are of somewhat later origin, and contain directions about elections, ordination, official duties of priests, and such like. The Homilies and Recognitions are a kind of romance, Syrian in origin, and the product of a heretical spirit, endeavoring to justify Ebionitism, in opposition both to heathen polytheism and the Chris tian doctrine of the Trinity.
3. The first Epistle to the Corinthians, written in classical Greek, and giving proof of the high endow ments and culture of the writer, is a splendid example of a pastoral letter, and furnishes beautiful testi monies to such doctrines as the inspiration of Holy Scripture,* the Trinity,! justification through faith and good works, J and the hierarchical orders in the Church. § The cluster of legends that grew up around St. Clement's name, gives us an insight into the great esteem in which the Saint and his work were held by the early Christians. >
Editions and Literature. — Apostolic Fathers as above, § 30. — M'igne, S. gr. I, II. — A complete and reliable edition of the Greek text of both Epistles was only possible after the discovery of the Jerusalem codex at Constantinople by Phil. Bryennius, and was first published with critical commentary and notes by Ad. Hilgenfeld: dementis Rom. Epistoloe, Lips. 1876. — Recently, Germain Morin, O. S. B., has brought to light a " Versio latina antiquissima S. dementis Rom. ad Corinthios epistoliB " (4° Oxon.
* Chapters 45, 53. J Chaps. 32, 33.
t Chap. 46. § Chaps. 42, 44.
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1894), from a MS. belonging to the Xlth century. - Ceillier 1. c. I, 598-620. — Brffl, Der erste Corinther- brief des hi. Clemens. Freiburg 1883. —Funk, Die Apostol. Constitutionen. Rottenburg 1891. In this learned work is to be found a minute examination of the "Didascalia Apostolorum syriace," published by deLagarde-, Lips. 1854.
§ 34. Hermas.
1. A book belonging to the earliest days of Chris tianity, and most remarkable for its matter, form, and comprehensiveness, has come down to us under the name of "The Shepherd" (ffo^'v, Pastor). The author calls himself Hermas, and tells us that, when still young, he was sold as a slave to a certain Rhode, and afterwards set free by her. He married, and amassed a considerable fortune, partly by dishonest trade, and led with his own family a life of little edi fication. In punishment of his sins he lost all his possessions, except one field, and had to suffer many hardships, which, however, brought about a moral reform of himself and family. He lived in Rome at the time of Pope Clement, and probably held the office of a lector in the Church. Whether he is the same Hermas to whom St. Paul sent greeting in his Epistle to the Romans,* or whether he is a brother of Pope Pius I. (140-155), is still a much disputed question. In favor of the former opinion may be adduced, not only the testimony of early Christian writers, such as Origen, Irenseus, Eusebius, and others, but also the circumstance that the writer represents himself f as a
* Rom. XVI. 14. f Vis. II.
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contemporary of Clement of Rome, and that the book was recognized in the Eastern Church as the work of a disciple of the Apostles, and consequently considered to possess Apostolic authority, like the Epistles of Clement and Barnabas. Against this ancient and for a long time generally prevailing opinion, various ob jections have Been urged in modern times, the chief one being the so-called Muratorian fragment, which is a catalogue enumerating the books that are to be con sidered as canonical or uncanonical, dating from the end of the second century. Here it is quite definitely stated that Hermas, a brother of Pope Pius I., was the author of " The Shepherd." We are thus confronted with two directly contradictory opinions, both appar ently well attested. Dr. Nirschl and others have sought to reconcile them by making the older Hermas the real author of the work in Greek, and the younger the translator of it into Latin. A third opinion main tains that it is the work of an entirely unknown per son, and written soon after the time of the Emperor Trajan.
2. The work is written in the Apocalyptic style, and furnishes precepts and instructions as to the way of becoming a Christian, and how to live a truly Chris tian life. It contains five Visions, twelve Command ments, and ten Similitudes. In the first four Visions, the Church appears to Hermas under the figure of a matron, and teaches him ; but in the fifth Vision, which forms the transition to the Commandments and Simili tudes, as well as throughout the latter, his informant is an angel of penance, appearing in the garb of a shepherd, whence the name of the whole book.
In Vision I. he receives instructions on purity of heart ;
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In Vision II. on his relation to his wife and chil dren.
In Vision III. he is shown the building of a tower, and how people are received and admitted into it.
In Vision IV. he is shown the afflictions of the Church, under the symbolical picture of a monster.
The Commandments treat of faith in one God, of simplicity, innocence, charity, truthfulness, lying, the duties of husband and wife, justice, patience, discern ment of spirits and their inspirations, and struggle against concupiscence. They end with an admonition to Hermas to observe and make known these com mandments.
The Similitudes are a series of telling images, illus trating various Christian truths and precepts, as, for instance, the harm of excessive solicitude for things temporal, the benefit the rich derive from the prayers of the poor, the merits of fasting, and so forth. In the tenth Similitude, the angel commands Hermas to exhort all men to penance, to the praise of God's works, the observance of his commandments, to patient endurance of suffering, and the practice of merciful kindness. The main purpose of all the communica tions made to Hermas in these Visions, Command ments, and Similitudes, is to awaken, not only in him and his family, but in all the faithful, a vigorous spirit of penance. As motives of penance, he points to the impending calamities of the Church, the end of the world, the second coming of Christ, or, in the image of the Vision, the completion of the tower.
3. The work abounds in beautiful passages and statements, some more, some less definite, on points of dogmatic and moral theology. For instance, the plurality of Divine Persons (Sim. IX, c. 12) ; the crea-
78 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
tion of man by God (Mand. XII, c. 4) ; original sin and the necessity of baptism (Sim. IX, c. 16) ; the free will of man (Mand. VI, c. 2) ; the necessity of grace, to be obtained by prayer (Vis. Ill, c. 9) ; the indissolubility of marriage (Mand. IV, c. 1); the lawfulness of second marriage (Mand. IV, c. 4) ; the observance of the commandments and striving after perfection by the practice of good works (Sim. V, c. 2, 3) ; resurrection and eternal retribution (Sim. V, c. 6, 7; VIII, c. 3; IX, c. 12. Vis. Ill, c. 7. Sim. VI. c. 2 ; VIII, c. 6). But the author fails in accu rately representing the doctrine of the Logos (Sim. V, c. 5; IX, c. 1).*
The style of the book is simple, cjear, but overladen with imagery; it resembles, in many respects, the Apocalypse of St. John, and on account of its solid and important matter was held in high esteem from the beginning in the Eastern Church, and, later on. also in the West. St. Jerome calls it " a truly useful book, and one from which many of the ancient writers have drawn their testimonies." f
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. II, 818 — 1024. — Hilgenfeld, Hermse Pastor, grsece e codice Sin- ait, ed. Lips. 1881. — Haussleitcr, De Versionibus Pas- toris Hermse Eatinis, Erlangse 1884. — Ceillier 1. c. I, 582-597. — Nirschl, Der Hirt des Hermas. Passau 1879 (an original and interesting discussion). — Baum-- gartner, Die Einheit des Hermasbriefes. Freiburg
* The objection is that he confuses the Son of God and the Holy Ghost. The confusion, however, is probably more apparent than real. (R.)
f De vir. ill. c. 10. " Revera utilis liber, multique de eo scriptorum veterum usurpavere testimonia; " (but he adds, '« Apud Latinos p&ne ignotus est.") (R.)
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1889. — Theolog. Quailalsclirift, 1878, pages 44 and 354; 1888, page 51. —A collation of the Athos Co dex of the Shepherd of Hermas, together with an introduction by Sp. P. Lambros. Translated and edited with a preface and appendices by J. A. Rob inson, Cambridge 1888. — C. Taylor, The Witness of Hermas to the Four Gospels. London 1892.
§ 35. St. Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch.
1. Little is known of the life of St. Ignatius, who was also called Theophorus. All we know is, that he was a disciple of St. John the Evangelist, that he occu pied the episcopal chair of Antioch (70-107) for thirty- seven years, as successor of St. Peter and Evodius, that during the persecution of Domitian, he encouraged and strengthened by prayer, fasting, and teaching the flock intrusted to him, and that he suffered martyrdom for Christ, according to his own ardent desire, in the Roman amphitheatre on Dec. 20, between 107 and 117, probably 107.*
With regard to the closing events of the life of the holy martyr, further details are contained in the "Martyrium S. Iguatii," written in a simple style, and, as is supposed, by eye-witnesses. It gives an account of how he discharged his episcopal office, how he was examined by the Emperor Trajan and gave testimony before him ; it further describes his deport ation, his stay at Smyrna, how he was visited by delegates from the neighboring churches, how he addressed letters to them, his further journey to
* See Funk in Kirchenlexicon VI, 582 (2 edit.). — Nirschl, Das Todesjahr des hi, Ignatius. Passau 1869,
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Rome, and his death in the amphitheatre. In the con clusion the reason is given why this account was written. Its authenticity is greatly disputed, and the manuscript is declared to belong to the fourth or fifth century.*
2. We have seven Epistles of St. Ignatius, written on his last painful journey to Rome. Four of these, to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, and Romans, are written from Smyrna, while the other three, to the Philadelphians, the people of Smyrna, and to Bishop Polycarp, arc written fromTroas. These Epistles are veritable jewels of ancient Christian literature ; they are full of unction, and every page bears witness to the episcopal fortitude, faithfulness, pastoral solicitude, and invincible faith of the great martyr. In them he endeavors to strengthen the faith of his brethren in the divinity and humanity of Christ, against the heresies of Ebionitisrn and Docetism, and as the best protection against all heresy he earnestly exhorts them to keep united amongst themselves and with their bishop. The authenticity of these Epistles, though much impugned, chiefly on dogmatical grounds, remains altogether beyond question. It is guaranteed first by the fact that Polycarp expressly states that he collected them all, that Iremeus, Origen, and Eusebius quote many passages from them, and that SS. Athanasius, Chrysostom, and Jerome appeal to them. In the next place, they bear the impress of a disciple of St. John, and of the Apostolic age. The remaining Epistles which profess to be written by St. Ignatius, are decidedly spurious, and owe their origin
* On the various acts of his martyrdom, see Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, p. II, vol. II, and Funk, opp. Patr. Apost. I, 254 sqq. — Nirschl, Histor.-Polit, Blatter, 1879, yol, LXXXIV.
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to an Apollinarist in Syria or Egypt, towards the beginning of the fifth century.
3. The genuine Epistles of St. Ignatius, whoso great importance was acknowledged from the earliest times, bear magnificent testimony to the truth of the Trinity (Magn. c. 13; Eph. c. 9); to the Doctrine of the divinity and humanity of Christ (Eph. c. 7, 18) ; the primacy of the Roman Church, which he calls "the president of the brotherhood"* [Rom. Introd.] ; the threefold rank of the hierarchy (Phila- delph. c. 7 ; Magn. c. 6) ; the Eucharist, which he calls the antidote of death and the means of immortalityf (Eph. c. 5 and 20) ; Christian marriage in foro Ec- clesise: — "It becometh men, and women too, when they marry, to unite themselves with the consent of the bishop, that the marriage may be after the Lord and not after concupiscence." (Polyc. c. 5.) Ignatius is a true copy of St. John, full of glowing love for Christ, whom he beholds represented in the bishops of the Church. His diction is generally powerful, but at times the language seems to struggle with the ideas, and becomes encumbered with heavy periods.
* In Bishop Lightfoot's translation the introductory words of the Epistle to the Romans run thus : " Igna- te tius ... to the church that is beloved and enlight- " ened through the will of Him, who willed all things that "are, by faith and love towards Jesus Christ our God; even *' unto her that hath the presidency in the country of the region "of the Romans, being worthy of God, worthy of honor, " worthy of felicitation, worthy of praise, worthy of suc- " cess, worthy in purity, and having the presidency of love " (*p<na1h)iUwi r£? fydxr^), walking in the law of Christ "and bearing the Father's name." . . . (The italics are mine. R.)
•f $d()ij.a7.<w dftavoffiaf, dyrtdorov TOO /J.TJ 6
82 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
Editions and Literature. — Apostolic Fathers as above. — Migne S. gr. V, 10-993. — Ceillier 1. c. I, 620-667. — Nirsclil, Die Briefe des heiligen Ignatius. Passau 1870 ; also, Lehrbuch, §§ 35-38, and DasTodes- jahr des heiligen Ignatius. Passau 1869. — Funk, Die Echtheit der Ignatianischen Briefe. Tubingen 1883, and Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexicon, VI, 2 ed. 581. — A Syriac version of the three Epistles, in an abbreviated form, was found, edited and commented upon in several writings by W. Cureton, London 1845-1849. — W. D. Kitten, The Ignatian Epistles entirely spurious ; a reply to the Rt. Rev. Dr. Light- foot, Bishop of Durham, Edinburgh 1886. 8T0. — 72. C. Jenkins, Ignatian Difficulties and Historic Doubts : a Letter to the Very Rev. the Dean of Peterborough. London 1890. 8V0. — See Bardenhewer, Patrologie, § 10; Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. §§ 36-37.
§ 36. St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (d. about 166).
1. Polycarp was the immediate contemporary and friend of St. Ignatius, but nothing certain is known as to his origin, or the place and time of his birth. Iren- reus, his disciple, tells us that he was instructed by the Apostle St. John, and appointed by him Bishop of Smyrna. About the middle of the second century he journeyed to Rome to consult with Pope Anicetus regarding the time of Easter. On this occasion ho brought back to the Church many who had been led away by the Gnostics Valentine and Marcion. It is recorded that on meeting Marcion in the streets of Rome, when the latter asked whether he knew him, he replied that he knew " the first born of Satan." He was close on a hundred years old, when he died the
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death of a martyr by the sword — having been mirac ulously preserved from death by fire — under Marcus Aurelius, about 166, or, according to others, about 155 or 156.
The particulars of the glorious end of St. Polycarp are given us in the " Marty rium S. Polycarpi," writ ten by a certain Marcus, at the request of a Christian church of Asia Minor. It contains a striking descrip tion of the personal appearance of the Apostolic dis ciple, the fearlessness of the Christians amidst the most terrible tortures, their enthusiastic love of the faith and veneration for their Bishop. The authen ticity of this valuable document, like that of the mar tyrdom of St. Ignatius, has indeed been contested in modern times, but the greater probability seems to be in its favor.
2. Of the letters which St. Polycarp, according to the testimony of St. IrenjBus, wrote to the neigh boring churches and to particular persons, we possess only that to the Philippians, whose authenticity is vouched for by Irenaeus and Eusebius, and by the fact that it was publicly read in the churches, and that its subject is quite in harmony with the doctrine of the Apostles and the circumstances of the time and the author.
The Philippians had asked him to send them the let ters of St. Ignatius. To these he joined his own epistle, containing fourteen chapters of the most beautiful instructions on the Christian life and the duties belonging to its various states.
Five fragments of answers attributed to him, are doubtful; and the so-called " Doctrina Polycarpi," the "Epistola ad Athenieuses," and the 4t Epistola ad Dionysium Areopagitam," are decidedly spurious.
84 MANUAL OF PATROLOGY.
3. The original text of the Epistle to the PhilippiaDS is incomplete, but it is preserved complete in a Latin translation. The Epistle is noteworthy for the fol lowing doctrinal points: The necessity of tradition (c. 7) ; the divine and human nature of Christ (c. 1-2); intercession for friends and enemies (c. 12); resurrection and judgment (c. 7). The style is simple, clear, and powerful, interspersed with many passages from the Old and New Testament, and, for this reason, of special importance for the Canon of Scripture. St. Irenseus speaks of him thus : —
" Poly carp was not only taught by the Apostles, and had held intercourse with those who had seen Christ, but was also appointed by the Apostles as bishop over the Church of Smyrna, in Asia Minor, teaching always the same things which he had learnt from them, and which the Church also is handing down, and which alone are true."*
Editions and Literature. — Apostolic Fathers as above. — Migne, S. gr. V, 995-1046. — Ceillier 1. c. I, 672-683. — Much has been written both here and abroad on the day and year of St. Polycarp's martyr dom. — J. M. Cotterill, in the Journal of Philology, vol. XIX, 1891, p. 241-285, contended that the
* Adv. Haer. Ill, c. 3. "IloXbzapxos oo p.6vov bxt 11 dxoffToZwv fiaftyTsufts}? xal ffuvavaffT/oaye}? Tro/MoT? TO?? li TOV XptfTTov EwpazoffiVj dXXd xal UTTO CLTtoffroXuiv xaraffTaftels 11 efc Tyv 'AfftaV) iv TTJ £v 2/j.opvYj 'Exxtyffta ^((rxoxos .... " raord dtdd£a<? dsj', a xat Ttapa rtbv dnoffroXcav !',aa$£v>, "a xal ij 'ExxXrj<ria Ttapadidotffiv^ a xa\ //ova iffriv fiA^r^^." The German author gives no translation of the Greek pas sages he quotes. The English translation attempted iii this and other passages, is mine, but is probably too literal to be good. (R.)
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Epistle to the Philippians was written by a certain Antiochus, a monk of Palestine, but be was refuted by G. Taylor, in tbe same Journal, vol. XX, 1892, p. 65-110. — See Bardenhewer, Patrologie § 11, 5-6.
§ 37. St. Papias, Bishop of Hierapolis.
1. St. Papias, often mentioned with distinction by Christian antiquity, is said by St. Irenseus to have been a disciple of the Apostle St. John and a friend of St. Polycarp. He was a man of great erudition and Biblical knowledge, and took special care to col lect the oral traditions concerning the life and dis courses of our Saviour. But he was rather deficient in critical judgment and method, often taking figura tive expressions in the literal sense. This, of course, proved a fruitful source of other errors and mistaken ideas. Whether he ended his pious and zealous life by a martyr's death is uncertain.*
2. Of the work which he composed between ISO- ISO, under the name of Aoy(u>v xuptaxaiv S^wy treat? ffuyypdfjLfj.a.Taj i. e. " Books of explanation of the Lord's sayings," and which was still in existence in the thir teenth century, there are but ten fragments preserved to us by Irenseus, Eusebius, and others. They con tain notices of his studies, researches into the mira cles of his time, and observations on the Gospels of St. Mark and St. Luke, and on the four Maries men tioned in the Gospels.
3. It is worthy of note that Papias, according to a quotation in Eusebius, prefers the verbal tradition of the eye-witnesses of Christ to the written testimony.
* He is supposed to have lived between 80-160.
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"I supposed the things written in books were not of such service to me as those learnt from the living and lasting voice." * He, too, seems to have been the first among the Fathers who adopted and taught the doc trine of the Millennium. St. Jerome says : " Hie dic- itur mille annorum Judaicam edidisse Ssorlpaxnv^ quern secuti sunt Irenseus et Apollinaris et ceteri, qui post resurrectionem aiunt in carne cum sanctis Dominum regnaturum." f
Editions and Literature. — Apostolic Fathers, as above. — Migne S. gr. V, 1251-1262. — Ceillier 1. c. I, 683-687. — Routh, Reliquiae Sacne, Oxonii 1846. I, 3-44.
§ 38. The Unknoivn Author of the Letter to Diognetus.
1. Up to the seventeenth century, St. Justin was thought to be the author of this remarkable though long unnoticed letter. However, it must be consid ered much older than the writings of St. Justin. For the author calls himself a disciple of the Apostles (c. 11) and represents Christianity as of quite recent appearance. Again, none of the older Fathers men tion it amongst the works of St. Justin. The view, moreover, taken by the author of the Epistle as to Judaism and Christianity, is wholly different from that of St. Justin. Finally, there is a great difference of style and language between the two. No book of Justin is written so logically, clearly, and elegantly as this epistle. With regard to the person of Diognetus, all we know is, that he was a heathen of distinction,
* " Ob T& £x rwv f3t(3kia (Bavov, offov rd napa £d>ffys (piovrjS xdi fjisvouffys." Hist. Eccl. Ill, 39.
t De vir. ill. c. 18.
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who was desirous of a closer acquaintance with the Christian religion.
2. In this important letter the writer answers with great rhetorical skill and warmth the three following questions of Diognetus : —
(a.) Why do Christians reject heathenism and Judaism?
(b.) What God do they adore, who love each other even unto the contempt of the world and death ?
(c.) If the Christian religion be the true one, why did it not come sooner into the world ?
Answer to (a.) Because the gods of the heathens are senseless images of wood, stone, and metal, and the entire Jewish religion consists of empty ceremonies, and contains, moreover, 'much that is unreasonable. To (b.) The Christian religion is something super natural, not like other religions invented by men, but revealed by God Himself, and for this reason it brings forth virtues unknown before. To (c.) It was, first of all, necessary that man should become convinced of his own spiritual poverty and helplessness, from which God alone could deliver him. This God did by send ing his only-begotten Son into the world, and giving Him up to death, in expiation for the sins of mankind. In the last chapter Diognetus is invited to embrace the Christian religion, and to have a share in the true knowledge of God and in eternal salvation. Chapters XI and XII must be considered as a later addition, because they differ both in matter and form from the preceding ones.
3. This letter is also highly important from a dog matical point of view. It contains, amongst others, the following doctrinal truths : a, that no man can, through his own endeavors, attain to the perfect knowl-
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edge of God, but only through the Logos (c. 7, 8); 6, that Christ is God's own (?&o?) and only-begotten (fj.ovoyev7]?), Son, the immortal (atfavaro?) and incom prehensible (dxeptvorjTos) Logos, and far above the angels (c. 7-9) ; c, that the Son of God became man in order to reveal to us the divine mysteries (c. 7), and to make satisfaction for our sins by His sacrificial death (c. 9) ; d, that justification, besides cleansing from sin, implies also interior sanctification (c. 7-9) ; e, that the Church alone possesses the doctrine of the Apostles (c. 11). The language of the letter is clear, the style animated and florid, and the contents show that the writer was of a spiritually elevated and mystical turn of mind.
Editions and Literature. — Apostolic Fathers as above. — Migne, S. gr. II, 1169-1186. — Otto, Corpus apolog. christ. sseculi II, vol. I, 3 ed., Jense 1876- 1881. — CeUlierl. c. II, 38-42. —Kihn, Der Ursprung des Briefes an Diognet. Freiburg 1882. — Fessler- Jungmann 1. c. § 46.
SECOND EPOCH.
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PATRISTIC LITERATURE (150-325).
§ 39. General Survey.
During this period, Christian literature shows a re markable development in many ways. Now was the time to defend the Church against attacks from within and without. Hence apologetical and polemical the ology came naturally to the fore. Men preeminent in learning and eloquence forsook idolatry and embraced
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Christianity. These took up the defense of the Chris tian faith in a series of eloquent apologies, and, in conjunction with those who had been trained in the Christian schools, assailed the position of the Jews and Gentiles, as well as of the numerous heretics that sprang up, as the Gnostics, Montanists, Anti-Trinitar ians, Novatians, and others. By this means they were able to bring out more and more clearly the nature and doctrine of the Church, and still further to consolidate her unity. The foundation of the catechetical schools at Alexandria, Antioch, and Csesarea exercised a far- reaching influence upon the progress of Christian science and literature. In these schools, both Chris tian and heathen youths sought and obtained educa tion in philosophical and Christian doctrine, and from them came forth a great number of learned men, bishops, saints, and martyrs. Towards the middle of this epoch, arose the first Latin authors, who, though but few in number at first, sent forth their light with all the more splendor.
Editions and Literature. — Mohler 1. c. p. 179- 187; 416-429. — Simon, Histoire de Pecole d'Alex- andrie. Paris 1845. — Vacherot, Histoire critique de 1'ecole d'Alexandrie. Paris 1846-1851.
CHAPTER I.
GREEK FATHERS AND WRITERS.
A. APOLOGISTS.
§ 40. St. Justin, Martyr (cZ. about 167).
1. Justin was born about 100, at Flavia Neapolis (Sichem, Nablus) in Palestine, of rich heathen
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parents, who could afford to give their son a good education. From early youth he seemed to thirst for a knowledge of things divine. He frequented in suc cession the schools of the Stoics, Peripatetics, Pytha- gorseans, and Platonists, but without finding in any of them the realization of his ideal. Wandering one day on the sea-shore, absorbed in thought, he was met by a venerable old man, who directed his attention to the study of the prophets, Christ, and the Apostles. The assiduous perusal of the Sacred Books, and the con stancy of the Christians under persecution, impressed him deeply and led him at last to embrace Christianity at the age of 33. Continuing to wear his garb of a philosopher, he worked with great energy and skill, by word of mouth and writing, for the defense and propagation of the Christian religion. , He undertook long journeys in order to acquire a deeper knowledge of its doctrines, and to win over to them the heathen youth. He twice repaired to Rome, where he appears to have established a school, and where, in public dis putations, he attacked Marcion, the heretic, Crescen- tius, the cynic, and other philosophers. Here, too, he issued his apologies for the Christians. Having been denounced as a Christian by his enemy Crescen- tius, he was scourged and beheaded, apparently in 167.
2. The writings of St. Justin are so valuable that they have earned for him imperishable glory and renown in Christian theology. The following are undoubtedly genuine :
(a.) " Apologia prima pro christianis," in 68 chap ters, addressed to the Emperor Antoninus Pius, to his son, Marcus Aurelius, to the Senate and people of Rome. In the first part, he pleads in defense of the
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Christians against their unjust persecution, that they are not evil-doers, but good citizens, and that the charges made against them of atheism and inconti- nency are unfounded. In the second part, he proves the truth of the Christian religion, and shows forth its blessing^ and fruits.
(b.) u Apologia secunda, vel minor," in 15 chap ters. This is a continuation of his first Apology. In it he answers the scoffing questions of the heathens, as to why Christians did not kill themselves, in order to get the more quickly to God, and why God, if He be their protector, suffers them to be oppressed and put to death by the wicked.
(c.) "Dialogus cum Tryphone," in 142 chapters. Here he deals with three questions, in reply to Try- phon, the Jew. First, why do not Christians observe the Law given by God? Second, how can they wor ship the Redeemer both as God and as a crucified man? Third, why do they hold intercourse with heathens? In answer to these questions he proves from the prophets that Christ is the true God of the Jews and the Messiah expected by them, that the Old Covenant is dissolved, that Judaism has given place to Chris tianity, which is the true fulfilment of the Old Testa ment, and from henceforth the universal religion of the world. This dialogue is not strictly an account of a real disputation with the Jew Tryphon, but rather the outcome of conversations on religious matters which Justin had with the Jews, and of his experience thus gained. Nevertheless it is by far the most im portant of all the patristic apologies against Judaism. The work has not come down to us intact, for there is a gap in the 74th chapter.
The following are of doubtful authenticity: (a.)
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" Oratio ad Grsecos," in 5 chapters, in which the author assigns as his reason for embracing Christi anity, the immorality of the heathen, and the purity and loftiness of the Christian, religion. ( b. ) " Cohor- tatio ad Grsecos/' in 38 chapters, in which he points out that the truth is not to be sought for in the heathen poets and philosophers, but in the prophets inspired by God. (c.) " De monarchia," in 6 chapters, wherein it is shown that the greatest heathen poets and philoso phers were inclined to monotheism, (d.) *' De resur- rectione," a fragment in 10 chapters, in which the possibility and reality of our resurrection is inferred from the fact that Christ raised others and rose himself from the dead.
We have in favor of the genuineness of these writ ings the testimony of Eusebius, St. Jerome, and St. John Damascene ; against it, the difference of the style, which is more polished than that of the Apologies.
The following are lost: (a) u Psaltes; " (b) " De anima ; " (c) " Liber contra omnes hsereses." Other writings, as " Expositio rectse fidei de Trinitate," " Kesponsiones ad orthodoxos," ** Quaestiones gen- tilium ad Chris tianos," are wrongly ascribed to him.
In the writings of St. Justin, the Christian faith is explained with great erudition, depth, and precision. He expresses himself with remarkable clearness about original sin (Dialog, c. 88. 100) ; baptism (Apol. I. c. 61) ; divine service on Sunday (c. 65 and 67) ; the Eucharist (c. 66) ; the eternity of the punishments of hell (c. 12).
Justin was a philosopher of the school of Plato, and in common with Papias held Chiliastic views, without, however, maintaining them as part of the Christian faith and tradition (Dialog, c. 31, 32, 80, 81).
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While maintaining that Christianity alone was in the perfect possession of truth, he yet granted that heathen philosophers possessed germs of truth (ff-KipiLara TOO /toyou). Apart from digressions and occasionally tiresome periods, his style is generally dignified and forcible. Photius thus speaks of him: "He is a man who has climbed the heights of phi losophy, Greek as well as foreign ; he is overflowing with much learning and the riches of knowledge, but he took no pains to adorn the natural beauty of his philosophy with the arts of rhetoric."
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. VI. — Ceil- Uer 1. c. II, 1-73. — Semisch, Justin der Martyrer. Breslau 1842. — Aube, St. Justin, philosophe et martyr. Paris 1861. — Freppel, St. Justin ("Les Apologistes Chretiens au IP siecle ") Paris, 1886, 3d ed. — Moliler 1. c., p. 188-253. — G. T. Purves, The Testimony of Justin Martyr to early Christianity. New York 1889. (London 1889.) 8V0. — Funk, in Kirchenlexi- kon,vol. vi. 2. edit. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 49-53.
§ 41. Tatian, the Assyrian.
1. Tatian, born A. D. 130, was a disciple of St. Justin. After having devoted himself in his youth to rhetorical studies and the doctrines of heathen phi losophy, he traveled through many lands, in order to become acquainted with the manners, customs, and, in particular, the religion of their inhabitants. The heathen religion was repugnant to him, no less on account of its irrationality and immorality, than of the repulsive selfishness of the philosophers. On the other hand, the Holy Books, with their sublime moral principles, simple language and style, as well as the
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pious life of the Christians, made so powerful an impression upon him, that he embraced and joyfully confessed the Christian faith. When at Rome, he made the acquaintance of St. Justin, whom he calls an admirable teacher. Some time after the death of the latter, he returned to the East, where, out of wounded pride, he adopted heretical principles, and was chosen head of a sect of Gnostics, whose followers were named Encratites, on account of their rejection of marriage and abstinence from meat and wine, and also Hydroparastatae, because of their making use of water instead of wine in the celebration of the Holy Euchar ist. The time and place of his death are unknown.
2. Of the many works of Tatian, two only have come down to us : (1) the " Oratio adversus Grsecos," in 42 chapters, written about 170, before his apostasy, where in he inveighs against the immoral excesses of the Greeks and Romans, particularly the cruelty of the gladiatorial games and the licentiousness of the thea tres. He expresses with lively indignation his contempt of the Greek religion as being absolutely demoniacal, and then proceeds to demonstrate the greater antiquity of Christian wisdom as compared with that of the Greeks, and the immorality and intemperance preva lent among heathens as opposed to the chastity and tem perance of Christians. (2) The " Diatessaron," which is a harmony of the Gospels (the genealogy of Christ, however, being omitted). This writing of Tatian, whose original Syriac text had long been lost, was found in the form of an Arabic translation in 1883, by Father Augustine Ciasca, O. S. A., in a Vatican codex. After being compared with another manuscript in Arabic, preserved by a distinguished Copt, it was translated into Latin, and published in 1888, in both
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languages. It is of the highest value for the history of the Canon of the New Testament and the origin of Christianity.
3. Tatian's doctrines are not always correct and reliable. In the " Oratio ad Grsecos " he teaches the eternity of God (c. 4-5) ; the creation of the world (c. 5) ; the origin of evil (c. 7) ; the resurrection of the body (c. 6) ; and describes, in an attractive style, the supernatural character and universality of the Christian religion (c. 32). He loses himself from time to time in long digressions.
In point of thought and style, he bears a striking resemblance to Tertullian. Irenreus testifies to his apostasy: "After the martyrdom of Justin he fell away from the Church, and lifted up by the thought of (being) a teacher and puffed up as if different from others (i. e. better than others), he set up a system of teaching of his own." *
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. VI, 801- 888. — Otto 1. c. vol. VI. — Ciasca, Tatiani Evangeli- orum harmonise arabice, nunc primum ex duplici codice editse et laline translate. Rom«3 1888. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 123-131. — Daniel, Tatian der Apologet. Halle 1838. — Mattes in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlexicon, vol. X, Art. Tatian. — Salvatori, II Diatessaron di Taziano. Firenze 1889. — J. R. Harris, The Diates saron of Tatian: A Preliminary Study. London 1890. 8V0. — M. Maker, Recent Evidence for the Authen ticity of the Gospels: Tatian's Diatessaron. London 1893. 8™. — J. H. Hill, The earliest Life of Christ
* Adv. Haer. I, 23. uj/era ryv ''lauarivoo jiapropiav
a.<r7.dXov lT:apft£\s xai *3tov aaxTa dtd(i(>-
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ever compiled from the Four Gospels: being the Diatessaron of Tatian (circa A. D. 160). Literally translated from the Arabic Version. Edinburgh 1893. 8V0.
§ 42. Athenagoras, the Philosopher.
1. Of this writer we only know for certain that he was born in heathenism, probably at Athens, that he studied Greek philosophy, was converted to Chris tianity by the perusal of Holy Scripture, and that he composed two excellent works. Everything else reported concerning him is devoid of real foundation.
2. The two aforesaid writings are: " Legatio, sive supplicatio pro christianis," in 37 chapters, and " De resurrectione mortuorum," in 2G chapters. In the first work, which was addressed to the Emperors Marcus Aurelius and his son Commodus, about 177, he com plains that Christians are put to death merely for their name, and defends them against the charge of atheism, Thyestian feasts, and incest. In the second, he refutes the arguments brought against the resurrection, and proves that fundamental Christian dogma by a process of logical reasoning chiefly based upon the dual nature of man, the necessity of a judgment upon both soul and body, and the eternal destiny of man (c. 10-25). The book " De vero et perfecto amore " is undoubt edly supposititious.
3. In both works there are to be found many beau tiful passages, bearing on various points of doctrine, as v. gr., the existence and unity of God (Legatio, c. 7-9) ; the trinity of persons in God (c. 10, 12) ; the existence of angels and devils (c. 24, 25-27) ; the power of the Christian religion for maintaining the holiness of marriage and the observance of virginity
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(c. 32, 33). Athenagoras was gifted with a philo sophical intellect, refined by Grecian culture, and pos sessed a splendid style of writing. His Apology is excellent both in matter and form. His treatise on the resurrection shows depth of apprehension and skill in reasoning, and is, in spite of some defects, very important.
That Athenagoras became a Montanist is a ground less accusation. Natalis Alexander styles him: " Virum acerrimi ingenii, singularis eloquentise, omni- gense eruditionis ac incredibilis in rern Christianam studii " (Hist. eccl. Ill, 303), and Ceillier writes: " Dans les ecrits d'Athenagore on trouve beaucoup d'esprit, d'erudition et d'eloquence, et une profonde connaissance des mysteres de notre religion" (Hist. geiier. des auteurs eccl. lre. edit. II, 118.)
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. VI, 888- 1024. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 112-123. — An edition of both writings for schools and colleges has been ar ranged by F. A. March and W. B. Owen in Douglass' Series of Christian Greek and Latin Writers, vol. IV. New York 1876. 8V°.
§ 43. St. Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch (d. about 186}.
1. Theophilus, born and brought up in heathenism, was led to the knowledge and profession of Chris li- anity by means of the Holy Scriptures, which he had resolved to read for the purpose of impugning them. On account of his excellent qualities, he was chosen Bishop of Antioch, A. D. 168. As such he vigorously combated the Gnostics, and wrote several exegetical and other works. He died between 181 and 186.
2. His beautiful treatise entitled " Ad Autolycum,"
7
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in 3 books, was called forth by the scoffing remarks of the heathen Autolycus upon the Christian doctrines concerning God, the resurrection, and eternal happi ness. It contains many instructive things. In the first book, he explains the Christian doctrine of God, whose Supreme Being is known by his works, and of the resurrection. In the second, he shows the folly of polytheism and the reasonableness of Christianity. In the third, he proves that the heathen poets and philosophers were wholly ignorant of a worthy way of worshiping God. Christians, on the contrary, have a fitting worship, as is shown by the virtuous lives they lead. He also shows that the Holy Scrip ture, and therefore the Christian religion, are older than the tradition of the Gentiles. Two other works, against Marciou and Hermogenes, are lost, as also his " Biblia catechetica," and commentaries on the Pro verbs of Solomon, and the Gospel of St. Matthew. The four books of " Allegorise in Evangelium," handed down to us under his name, are a collection of scholia on passages selected from the four Gospels, made towards the end of the fifth century.
3. In the three above mentioned books to Autolycus, which are a real " prof anse etsacrae eruditionis promp- tuarium," we find discussed such points of doctrine as the necessity of faith (I, 8), the incomprehensibility of God (I, 3), the trinity of divine persons (II, 10, 15), the fall of man (II, 21), and the importance, truth, and sanctity of the Christian faith (III, 9-15), clearly and beautifully enounced and convincingly proved. " Son style," writes Ceillier, " est eleve, poli et bien diversifie ; le tour des pensees vif et agreable ; les raisonnements justes et pressants " (Hist, gener. II, 110.)
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Editions and Literature. — Migne S. gr . VI, 1024-1168. — Ceillier 1. c. IT, 103-112. — Otto 1. c. vol. VIII. — W. Sanday, A Commentary on the Gos pels, attributed to Theophilus of Antioch. Studia Biblica (Oxford 1885) pp. 89-101.
§ 44. Minor Apologists.
Christian apologies have also been written at this period by other Fathers, as Quadratus, Claudius Apollinaris, and Melito of Sardes, and by ecclesias tical writers, such as Aristides, Miltiades, and Hermias.
1. (a.) ST. QUADRATUS, a disciple of the Apostles, endowed with the gift of prophecy, presented to the Emperor Hadrian an Apology for the Christian religion, which is a monument of the purity of his faith and the depth of his knowledge. The Emperor, in conse quence of this work, ordered a cessation of the perse cution against the Christians. " Tantse," says St. Jerome, " admiration! omnibus fuit, ut persecutionem gravissimam illiusexcellenssedaretingenium" (Epist. 70 ad Magnum.) Unfortunately we are only in pos session of a fragment preserved by Eusebius (Hist. eccl. IV, 3), in which Quadratus shows the difference between the miracles of Jesus and those wrought by the powers of demons.
(b.) ST. CLAUDIUS APOLLINARIS, Bishop of Hi- erapolis, highly esteemed by his contemporaries on account of his great knowledge and virtues, wrote an Apology to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, which was much praised by St. Jerome. He also wrote, as we learn from Eusebius, five books against the heathens, and two on truth against the Montanists. All these
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writings, however, with the exception of a few frag ments, have been lost.
(c.) St. MELITO, Bishop of Sardes, of whose life nothing is known, ranks amongst the most brilliant lights of the Eastern Church of the second century, and the most learned men of that age. His literary labors extended to all the great ecclesiastical questions that agitated his time. Unfortunately, we only pos sess fragments of one or the other of his numerous literary works, amongst which the "Eelogse" (ex tracts from Sacred Scripture in six books) was the most important, whilst his Apolog}^ presented to the Emperor Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 170 or 171, was the last in point of time. His doctrine was not free from Anthropomorphism, nor from Chiliastic views. He died between 171 and 180. Eusebius calls him " a man who administered all things in the Holy Ghost."*
2. (a). ARISTIDES, whom St. Jerome calls " vir eloquentissimus," was an Athenian philosopher and a distinguished rhetorician. After his conversion to Christianity, he presented to Hadrian, or, as some say, to Antoninus Pius, an excellent Apology, in which he made use of the works of the heathen philosophers to vindicate the Christian religion. Of this long lost Apology, a considerable fragment in an Armenian translation, dating from the tenth century, was found in 1878 in an old codex, by the Mechitarist monks in Venice, together with an oration ascribed to Aris- tides. But in the year 1889, J. Rendel Harris, an American palaeographer, found in the Convent of St.
Hist. eccl. V, 24. " Tov & ayiio T^vsofiart Trdyra KoXiT£U~
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Catharine, on Mount Sinai, the entire Apology of Aristides, in a Syrian manuscript of the seventh cen tury ; and, soon after, Professor Robinson made the surprising discovery that the Greek text also was to be found, not only in manuscript, but actually printed^ since 1832, in the " Vita Barlaam et Joasaph," found among the writings of St. John Damascene. Though the three texts agree on the whole, they differ from each other in many particulars, but the Syrian seems to be preferable.
(b.) MILTIADES, whom Tertullian calls *• Sophista ecclesiarum," i. e. *' Advocate of the Christians," composed, besides controversial works against heathens, Jews, and Montanists, a separate treatise in defense of the divinity of Christ, and a Christian Apology addressed to the civil power. From the few fragments preserved by Eusebius we may discern the ability of the entire composition, as well as the other writings of this author. St. Jerome says of him : "Scripsit et contra gentes volumen egregium . . . ut nescias, quid in illo primum mirari debeas, erudi- tionem sseculi, an scientiam Scripturarum " (Epist. 70 ad Magnum. )
(c.) HEKMIAS. History gives us no information whatever respecting the time and life of this writer ; neither do any of the ancient writers make mention of the work that has come down under his name, "Irrisio gentilium philosophorum." But he must have lived after Justin and Tatian, towards the begin ning of the third century. In forcible and sarcastic language he deals with the doctrines of heathen phi losophers on God, the world, the soul, pointing out their glaring contradictions, but failing at times to grasp or exhibit the pagan doctrines in their syste-
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matic connection. Thus he testifies to the truth of St. Paul's words: " The wisdom of this world is folly before God." (I. Cor. iii, 19.)
Editions and Literature. — To 1. (a.) Migne, S. gr. V, 1262-1266.— Ceillierl. c. I, 688-690. —To 1. (b.) Migne, V, 1286-1302. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 83-85. —To
1. (c.) Migne, S. gr. V, 1145-1250. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 75-79. — Thomas, Melito von Sardes, Osnabriick 1893. — To 2. (a) Migne, S. gr. V, 1267-1268.- Ceillierl. c. I, 690-691. —Tiibinger Quartalschrift, 1879, p. 289, and 1880, p. 109. —To 2. (b) Migne, S. gr. XX, 473-476. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 131. —To
2. (c) Migne, S. gr. VI, 1168-1180. — Otto 1. c. vol. IX.— Ceillier 1. c. VIII, 554-556.
B. GREEK CONTROVERSIALISTS.
§ 45. St. Irenceus, Bishop of Lyons (d. 202).
1. Irenceus, born between 130-140 in Asia Minor (Smyrna?), had, from his earliest youth, the happiness of being instructed by St. Polycarp and other Apos tolic men. His deep attachment to the Christian doctrine did not prevent him from studying the Greek poets and philosophers, especially Homer and Plato.
With a view to missionary work, he journeyed to Gaul, where he was ordained priest by Pothinus, Bishop of Lyons, who suffered martyrdom in the per secution of Marcus Aurelius, A. D. 178. Irenteus was nominated to succeed him as bishop by Pope Eleutherius, to whom he had been sent on an ecclesi astical mission. In this office he showed untiring zeal and energy for the good of the churches in Gaul.
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Moreover, by means of bis writings, in defense of the unity and purity of the faith, which was endangered by the Gnostics, he made his influence felt far beyond the limits of Gaul. Finally, he proved himself worthy of his name, Elpyvaios, i. e., " the Peaceful/' by affect ing a happy compromise between the East and West in the dispute concerning Easter, which had gone so far as to cause an open rupture between the two sections of the Church.
In the great persecution under Septimius Severus, the shepherd suffered martyrdom with many of his flock (June 28th, 202).
2. Of the numerous writings of Irenseus, we have, besides a few fragments, only his chief work : " Detec- tio et eversio falso cognominatse gnosis," (since St. Jerome generally, but less aptly, quoted as u Adversus hsereses,") in five books, and preserved for the most part in a Latin translation, but much interspersed with Greek expressions, and on this account rather difficult to understand. In this, at once the oldest and most solid and comprehensive work of the kind against the false doctrines of the Gnostics, Irenaeus not merely testified to the truths of Christianity, but also defended them against the attacks of false philoso phers, and sought to preserve the faithful from error, and to bring back those who had gone astray. The predominant thought throughout the whole work is this, that there is no truth, nor means of knowing the law of faith or morals, except in and through the Church.
3. Irenseus bears witness to the inspiration of Holy Scripture (II, 28, n. 3-); its right interpretation in the Church (IV, 33, n. 8) ; tradition, as a source
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of proof (III, 2, n. 2) ; the infallibility and immuta bility of the Church (I, 10, n. 2 ; III, 24, n. 1 ; V, 20, n. 1); the pre-eminence of the Roman Church,* (III, 3, n. 2) ; belief in the Trinity (IV, 20, n. 1 ; 6, n. 7) ; the object of the Incarnation (III, 16, n. 6 ; 18, n. 7) ; Mary, as the beginning of our salvation (III, 22, n. 2-4) ; the free will of man (IV, 37, n. 1, 4) ; original sin (V, 16, n. 3) ; the perfectibility of the human soul (IV, 39, n. 2) ; the sacrament of baptism (III, 17, n. 2) ; the necessity of confession of sins, ZzofjLoMryffts (I, 13, n. 5, 7) ; and especially the Holy Eucharist as a sacrament (V, 2, n. 3) and sacrifice, (IV, 17, n. 5 ; 18. n. 1, 2, 4).
But in his views on the nature and immortality of the human soul and on the Millennium, he deviates from the doctrine of the Church. He was the first who fully grasped the importance of the Catholic principle of tradition, and used it with great dialectic skill as a most powerful weapon against heretics. His language is simple, natural, and generally animated. Tertullian describes him as " omnium doctrinarum curiosissimus explorator; " Eusebius aptly calls him " a peacemaker," slpyvo-xoto?, while Epiphanius makes honorable mention of him in these words: " Irenseus, the aforesaid old man, being in all things furnished and adorned by the Holy Spirit, and set up by Christ as a true athlete, and anointed with those heavenly gifts that are according to the true faith and knowledge,
* " Ad hanc enim ecclesiam propter potentiorem princl- te palitatem necesse est omnem convenire ecclesiarn, hoc est u eos qui sunt undique fideles, in qua semper ab his qui sunt "undique conservata est ea, quse est ab Apostolis tradi- «tio." 1. c.
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was able to beat down and overcome all their empty talk/' *
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. VII. — (Reprint of Benedictine edition by Massuet, O. S. B. (d. 1716). — A separate and later edition by W. W. Harvey, Cambridge, 1857. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 135- 196. — Gouillaud, St. Irenee et son temps. Lyon 1876.— Freppel, St. Irenee, etc. 3 ed. Paris 1886. — Ziegler, Irenseus, der Bischof von Lyon, Berlin 1871. — See also Routh, Reliq. Sacr. 2 ed. II, 1-36 and I, 47-68.
§ 46. Gains, the Roman Presbyter (d. about 220).
1 . Gains, or Gains, the place and time of whose birth are unknown, was most probably a disciple of St. Iren seus and lived at Rome under Pope Zephyrinus and the Emperor Caracalla. He became a priest of the Roman Church, f and seems also to have been a kind of bishop (tntffxonot; raiv kftv&v). He gained great celeb rity as an able defender of the doctrine of the Church against heretics, and was in particular a determined opponent of Chiliastic views (Millennium).
2. Caius wrote a " Disputatio adversus Proclum," who was considered the most learned and most able representative of the Montanists. The original work in Greek is lost. The fragments preserved by Euse-
* Adv. Haer. XXXI, 33. Etpyvdlos 6 xpostpi)ii.&os dvyp 6 xard xdvTa tx UvsupaTos dyioo xexofffuqfj.&o?, ff a.^Xr,rr^ o~o TOO Kopioo npOffj3e0Ar)fJ.£vos, xal roT? ixovpaviots /apifffiafftv, Tm$ xard ryv TftffTtv xal yviofftv, xaraKakaiffas re xat ffdfj.£vos TTjV xaffav auraJy x£vo<f>a>vtav.
f Euseb. H. E. II, 25. — Photius, Bibl. Cod. 48.
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bius contain many interesting particulars of the spirit and system of the heretics of that time. The * ' Par- vus labyrinthus," as well as the work " De univer- so," or "De causa universi," are the productions of his contemporary Hippolytus.
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. X, 17- 36. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 208-210. 239-241. — Routli, Reliq. Sacr. II, 123-158 (2d ed.).
§ 47. St. Hippolytus (d. about 235).
1. Hippolytus, whose origin is unknown, .was a disciple of St. Irenseus, and lived at Rome where he combated the Patripassianism of Sabellius and Noetus, though his own doctrine concerning the Logos was not free from suspicion, and he held also rigoristic views about the nature of penance. After the death of Pope Zephyrinus, he came forward as Roman Bishop (Episcopus Portus Romani), in opposition to Pope Callistus, to whom he had a great aversion, and thus caused the first schism in the papacy, which happily did not reach very far nor last long. After the death of Callistus, however, he was reconciled to the Church, and on account of his great virtue and work, was held in high veneration, and died a martyr about 235. His admirers erected a costly marble statue in bis honor, which was discovered in the year 1551 with a partial catalogue of his works inscribed on it.
2. Besides some exegetical (" Explanatio in Gene- sin, mDanielem, in Psalmos, in Proverbia," etc.) and homiletical works, Hippolytus also composed others of a dogmatical and controversial nature, of which the principal are the following : —
(a.) " Demonstratio de Christo et Antichristo," in 67 chapters, written about 200, wherein he shows, first, that the Logos had already revealed his incarnation
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to the prophets, and that he became man in order to redeem the world. Next, in .order to fortify men against the seductions of the Antichrist, he tries to gather whatever information he can from Holy Scrip ture, concerning the person of the Antichrist, his origin and characteristics, the time of his coming, his impos tures and impiety, who, he says, will proclaim himself God and persecute the Church.
(b.) " Philosophumena, seu omnium haeresium refutatio," in ten books, composed about 230, and, with the exception of the second and third books, dis covered in a manuscript of Mount Athos by Mynoides Myna in 1842, The work contains an explanation of the Greek systems of philosophy, of magic, astrology, and other superstitions ; it describes furthermore the doctrines of thirty-three Christian heretics, the teach ings of the Essenians, Pharisees and Sadducees, and, lastly, his own creed, not altogether free from error.
(c.) " Contra hseresinNoeti," in 18 chapters, con taining a brief and solid defense against Noetus, of the dogma of the trinity of divine persons in the unity of nature.
(d.) " Dernonstratio adversus Judseos," in 10 chap ters, wherein he proves the Messianic character of .Christ, the impiety of the Jews, and the divine justice of their punishment. The 38 so-called u Canones S. Hippolyti," edited in Arabic by Haneberg, are, ac cording to the learned researches of Funk, not the production of Hippolytus, but extracts from the eighth book of the Apostolic Constitutions. Of the " Parvus labyrinthus" (against the Antitrinitarian Artemon), and of " De causa universi " (treating of the abode of the souls of the departed till the judgment, and of eternal retribution), as well as of his exegetical and homiletical works, only fragments are left.
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The work "Contra Beronem " and fragments on the Trinity and Incarnation belong to a later period. Several of his writings, as " Adversus omnes hser- eses," " Contra Marcionem," " De charismatibus," "De resurrectione carnis," and others, have been entirely lost.
3. Hippolytus, with his contemporaries Origen and Tertullian, was indisputably one of the ablest and most learned writers of his time. Apart from his erroneous opinions on the Trinity and penance, his numerous works, written in a clear and vigorous style, contain the most telling passages on the inspiration of Holy Scripture (Demonstr. de Christo et Antichr. c. 2); on the invincibility of the Church (ibid. c. 59); on baptism (Horn, in Theoph. c. 8, 10) ; the Eucharist (Horn, in Prov.); the free will of man (Philos. X, 33); the resurrection and everlasting retribution (De causa universi c. 2, 3). According to John Zonaras, " Hyppolytus was a most holy and learned man, Bishop of Portus Romanus, who also wrote many works explanatory of different parts of Holy Scripture." *
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. X, 261- 962. — DuncTcer et Sclmeidewin, Hippoly ti refutationes omnium haeresium ; graece et lat. Goetting. 1859. _ Haneberg, Canones S. Hippolyti arabice e codicibus romanis editi. Monachii 1870. — Ceillierl. c. II, 316- 374. — Dottinger, Hippolytus und Kallistus. Regens- burg 1853. — Hergenrother, in Tiibinger Quartalschr. 1852, pp. 416-441.— Grisar, Bedarf die Hippolytfrage
dvyp Ispwraros xai TOO xard 'Patpyv Hop-too ysvouevo?, #? xai Tro/Ua
aTo, didtpopa rq$ fteta? Fpatpr^ tz
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einer Revision? Zeitschr. fiir Kath. Theologie, 3 Heft, Innsbruck 1878. — Funk, Zur Hippolytfrage. Hist.-polit. Bl. LXXXIX, 889 sq. — Fechtrup, in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlex. (2 Aufl.) vol. VI. — Fessler-Jungmann 1. c. § 67. — Ficlcer, Studien zur Hippolytfrage. Leipzig 1893. — Bunsen, Hippolytus and his age. London 1852, 2 ed., 4 vols. 8V0. — C. Wordsworth, St. Hippolytus and the Church of Rome in the early part of the 3d century. London 1853. 8™.—Lightfoot, The Apost. Fathers, II, 317-477.
§48. St. Archelaus of Cascar [Oarrce].
/St. Archelaus was bishop of Cascar in Mesopota mia between 276 and 282. Being a man of keen pen etration and full of fire and vigor of soul, in order to prevent the further spread of Manichasism, he chal lenged Manes, the founder of the sect, to public dis putation before heathens and Christians. The still preserved acts of this disputation form the most an cient and reliable source of the history of Maniehseism. Archelaus displayed such great dialectic skill in refuting the Manichoean doctrine about the two prin ciples of light and darkness, and in exposing the contradictions and weaknesses of their entire system, that he was adjudged the victory over Manes by the heathen umpires. In a later disputation, also, on the subject of the incarnation of the Logos, he gained a further victory over him by showing, that in deny ing the incarnation, he must necessarily also reject the resurrection and judgment. The acts of this disputation (Acta disputationis S. Archelai cum Manete, in 53 chapters), written by Archelaus in the animated Syrian style, but only preserved to us in a
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Latin translation, are in so far of great value as they furnish the first authentic account of Manes and his doctrine. They have also materially contributed to the condemnation of the Manichaean system, and forcibly witnessed to such Christian doctrines as the incarna tion of the Logos (Disp. c. 49, where Mary is ex pressly called Mother of God, Dei genitrix), the free will of man (c. 32), the ranks of the Christian hierarchy (c. 51).
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. X, 1406- 1528. — Ceillier 1. c. Ill, 333-344. —Mohler 1. c. pp. 663-667. — Kessler, in his work " Mani, Forschungen iiber die manichseische Religion," Berlin 1889, denies with a great show of erudition the historical character of the above disputation between Archelaus and Manes, and considers the Acta as a compilation from older documents, written in the form of a dialogue in the be ginning of the fourth century, with a view to counter act the spead of Manichaeism. — Dr. Bardenhetver, too, docs not consider Bishop Archelaus as a historical person and attributes the "Acta disputationis to the imagination of a certain Hegemonius (Patrologie, § 47, No. 1).
C. GREEK COMMENTATORS.
§ 49. Pantcenus (d. about 200).
1. Pantcenus, probably a native of Sicily, and con verted to Christianity by a disciple of the Apostles, applied himself chiefly to the study of Holy Scripture, without, however, abandoning his philosophical stud ies, which he had pursued from his youth. About the year 179, he was appointed teacher and president of the catechetical school of Alexandria. There, by
MANUAL OF PATHOLOGY. Ill
his learned expositions of the Holy Scriptures, he gained so widespread a reputation that envoys were sent from India (Arabia or Ethiopia?) to ask him to come and preach the Gospel, which office, with the approval of his Bishop, Demetrius, he undertook and held for many years in those distant lands. After his return, he resumed his teachings in Alexandria till his death, about 200. He endeavored to combine the doctrines of the Stoic philosophy with those of Chris tianity, and helped to advance ecclesiastical learning by written as well as oral discourses and commenta ries upon the Sacred Scriptures. Of his writings, how ever, only scanty fragments have reached us.*
Editions and Literature. — Miyne, S. gr. V, 1327- 1332. — Routli, Reliquiae Sacr« I, 375-383. — Geillier 1. c. II, 237-239.
§ 50. Clement of Alexandria {died about 215).
1. Titus Flavins Clemens was born (at Athens or Alexandria) of heathen parents towards the middle of the second century, and received a heathen education. Dissatisfied with the results of Grecian and Egyptian science, which from an ardent desire for knowledge he had thoroughly sifted, he embraced Christianity at an early age. For the sake of advancing further in the blessed knowledge of the Christian truths, he sought out the most celebrated teachers of East and West, amongst whom was Pantsenus, the "Sicilian bee, which gathered the honey from the flowers of the prophetical and Apostolical fields.'* The latter having set out for India to preach the Gospel, Clement was ordained priest by Demetrius, and appointed Presi-
* Euseb., II. E. v, 10. — Hieron., De vir. ill. c. 36.
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dent of the catechetical school at Alexandria, in 189. In this capacity he acquired immortal praise Iby his learning, and many distinguished men received their training under him. During the persecution of Sep- timius Severus he fled from the town, in accordance with the admonition of our Lord,* and repaired to Flaviades in Cappadocia to his disciple Bishop Alexander, whom he later followed to Jerusalem. He died at an advanced age about the year 215, in what place is not known. He is not mentioned in the Roman Martyrology.
2. Of the works of this prolific writer we possess the following : —
(a.) u Cohortatio acl Gentes," in 12 chapters, in which, after a withering criticism upon the absurdity, folly, and emptiness of heathen religion and phil osophy, he represents Christ as the divine Teacher, and His pure and lofty doctrines as the oldest and truly divine religion.
(b.) il Paedagogus," in 3 books, wherein he repre sents the Logos as the Tutor of those who are bap tized, the principle of education being divine love, and its object to make men godlike. He next gives a practical instruction as to how to conform one's life to the precepts of the divine Tutor, and, finally, he sets forth in glowing colors, the true ideal of the Christian life.
(c.) "Miscellanea" (tfr/xo/jtare:?), in 8 books, a col lection of various and somewhat disconnected dis courses, partly religious and partly philosophical, wherein he tries to establish a rational basis for the doctrines of Christianity. The discussions they con-
* Matth. x, 23.
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tain about the importance of the Old and New Tes taments, the relation between faith and science, and the burning questions of the day upon morals, mar riage, celibacy, asceticism and the like, give special importance to the book.
(d.) "Quis dives salvabitur? " in 42 chapters, in which the passages occurring in St. Matthew XIX, 21-24, are well and attractively explained, and where it is shown that the good use of earthly possessions can be made available for eternal salvation. Some of his works, as the " Adumbrationes," treatises upon fasting, patience, Easter, are lost, while only fragments remain of others, on the soul and Providence, etc.
3. The writings of Clement have opened the way to Christian philosophy. In them we meet with the finest passages on divers points of Christian doctrine and life, as, for instance, on the Trinity* (Psed. Ill, 12) ; the true Church of Christ (Strom. VII, 16, 17); penance (II, 13 ; IV, 24) ; purgatory (VI, 14 ; VII, 12) ; the holiness and indissolubility of marriage (II, 23 ; IV, 20) ; prayer (VII, 7) ; fasting (VI, 12) ; the relation of science to faith (II, 4; V, 1), and other things. Clement was an Eclectic, but decidedly inclined towards Platonism. His " Cohortatio " and the " Stromata " testify to his prodigious erudition. His style is picturesque, but diffuse and heavy, his method indefinite. St. Jerome writes of him: " Clem ens Alexandrinse Ecclesise presbyter meo judicio om nium eruditissimus . . . Quid in (eius) libris indoctum, imo quid non e media philosophia est? " f
ravra r
raj fj.6vo) Harp} xal Tloj GUV xai rcD ip ivi iv a» rd Tzdvra." t Hieron. , Epist. 70 ad Magnum.
8
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Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. VIII-IX (Reprint of Bishop J. Potter's edition, Oxford 1715, and Venice 1757). — Ceillier 1. c. II, 242-316.— Mohler, 1. c. 430-486. — Reinkens, De Clemente Alex. homine,presbytero, philosopho, theologo. Vra- tislav. 1851. — Freppel, Clemens d'Alexandrie. Paris 1866. — Ch. Bigg, The Christian Platonists of Alexan dria : Eight lectures preached before the University of Oxford in the year 1886. Oxford 1886. 8V0.— An English translation of Clement's works in the Ante- Nicene Library, Clark, Edinburgh.
§ 51. Origen (died 254).
1. Origen, whon is styled Aeneus (Xalxtvrspos) on account of his iron energy, and Adamant! us (^AdaiJ.dvTio$), because of his genius and indomitable perseverance, was born at Alexandria, A. D. 185, of Christian parents, who watched with tender love over his education, and instructed him well in the Holy Scriptures. After the martyrdom of his father, A. D. 202, a rich matron supplied him with the means of studying theology under Pantsenus and Clement. At the same time he continued to apply himself to the study of the profane sciences, and became, at the desire of Bishop Demetrius, at the early age of eighteen, President of the catecheti cal school of Alexandria, then the first in all Chris tendom. His brilliant talents, his power of teaching, and the courage and steadfastness with which he suf fered for the faith in the persecution of Septimius Severus, made his name great among the Christians. To the study of divine things he joined the practical exercise of all Christian virtues. His zeal, however,
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outstripped his discretion ; for, he literally accepted and applied to himself the words of Our Lord in Matt. XIX, 12. For the sake of further improvement in philosophy, he frequented the schools of the Neopla- tonic Ammonius Saccas, without neglecting, however, his theological studies. About 212 he journeyed to Rome, in order to see the "most ancient of all the churches." After his return, he resumed the office of catechetical teacher, took Heraclas, his former disciple, as his colleague, began also to teach the liberal arts and thus attracted many noble heathen youths to the cause of Christianity. At this time too he began the great work of the Hexapla, in which he was assisted by the liberal donations of the learned Gnostic Ambrose, whom he had converted to Chris tianity.
In the year A. D. 215 he undertook a journey to Arabia, in order to instruct an Emir in the Christian religion, and in 218 was summoned to Antioch to dis charge a similar office for Julia Mammsea, the mother of the Emperor Alexander Sever us. After ten years of persevering labor in Biblical exegesis, he was called to Greece to put down a schism, and on his way thither visited Palestine, where he was ordained priest in an uncanonical manner by the Bishops of Coesarea and Jerusalem. This circumstance., as well as some erro neous sentences in the work *' Ilepl apx&v" and perhaps also some displeasure on the part of Bishop Demetrius induced that prelate to degrade and excommunicate Origen in two synods.
The latter, hereupon, again withdrew to Palestine and founded a learned Christian school at Caesarea, the reputation of which rivalled and almost surpassed that of Alexandria. He himself wrote many works.
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In the persecution of Maxiinin, the Thracian, he took refuge in Csesarea in Cappadocia, but returned, at the end of two years (238), to Csesarea in Palestine; journeyed in 240 to Athens and Nicomedia, and in 244 to Bostra in Arabia, where he won the heretical Bishop Beryllus over to ecclesiastical orthodoxy, and brought back the Hypnopsychites to the truth.
In the last ten years of his life he composed his best works, especially the eight books against Celsus, de livered countless public homilies, besides his theologi cal lectures, and wrote many letters. After unwearied labors in the cause of science, he died in 254, in the seventieth year of his age, in consequence of the cruel treatment received at Tyrus, in the Decian persecu tion.
2. The number of his writings is astounding, but the greater part of them are lost. Among them we may enumerate the following : —
(a.) Biblical Exegetical Works, amongst which his Hexapla, Octapla and Enneapla may be regarded as a kind of preliminary work. His expositions of Holy Scripture, which he knew by heart, are, in form, partly scholia, partly commentaries and homilies, and extend over nearly every portion of the Bible, but are now only extant in fragments. His Commentaries — in most part still preserved — on St. Matthew, St. John, and St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, as well as the homilies upon St. Luke, are particularly valuable. As to his method of interpretation, he considers that the true interpreter should start with the grammatical and end with the allegorical- mystical sense.
(b.) Apologetic and Controversial Works: The eight books against Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher, who had published a work called " The True Word,"
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wherein he brought together all the objections raised by Jews and Gentiles against Christianity, both from a religious and political point of view. Origen answers and refutes most of them with astounding erudition, and in a brilliant style and with forcible arguments shows that the Christian faith is most reasonable, drawing his proofs from the wonderful extension of Christianity, the cure of the sick and possessed, the fulfilment of the prophecies, and the spotless morality of the Christians in the midst of a world sunk in vice. This work is the best of all the ancient Apologies, and affords very excellent weapons even against modern opponents of Christianity.
(c.) Dogmatical Works. Several of these are lost, as the books called " 2Ir/o«>^are?<r," the books " On the Resurrection " and " On Free Will ; " only a few frag ments are preserved. But his chief work, " De prin- cipiis," [He pi ap%&v~\ has come down to us in a Latin translation, and some passages of it also in the original. The subjects treated in it are : in the first book, God and the world of spirits ; in the second, man, his re storation and eternal destiny ; in the third, free will and its relation to grace ; in the fourth, the interpre tation of Holy Scripture. The work forms a syste matic treatment of the theology of his time, but, on account of the errors contained in it, the author made for himself many enemies and was the cause of much disturbance.
(d.) Practical Works and Letters. Among the former we may mention, "De oratione," wherein he explains the object, efficacy, and various kinds of prayer, together with a commentary, full of meaning, on the Pater Noster. Also u Exhortatio ad mar- tyrium," which contains a glowing explanation of the
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motives for suffering martyrdom. Of the letters, there only remain, with the exception of some frag ments, an " Epistola ad Julianum Africanum," upon the authenticity of the story of Susanna, and one to Gregory Thaumaturgus. Other works ascribed to him are spurious, the " Dialogus," etc.
3. Origen's works are not free from errors, espe cially the one entitled " De principiis." He teaches a kind of subordinationism — inferiority of the Son and the Holy Ghost, not indeed as to their nature, but as to their origin.* He likewise held the pre-existence of souls, a kind of transmigration, and the corporeal nature of the angels, and denied the eternity of hell. Apart from these errors, his writings contain a wealth of Christian dpctrine, and the most magnificent testi monies on the Trinity (Horn. XII in Numeros) ; on prayer (De orat., c. 2, 5, 31) ; on the intercession of the angels and saints (ibid., c. 11; Contra Cels., VIII, 34, 57) ; on the necessity of confession (Horn. Ill, in Levit. n. 4; horn. X, in Exod. n. 3). As regards the Holy Eucharist, his language is guarded, on account of the <c Disciplina arcani," still there are not wanting testimonies wherein he clearly affirms the doctrine of the real presence and of transubstan- tiation (Horn. XVIII in Jerem., n. 13; horn. XIII in Exod., n. 3.).
His style and language are flowing in his polemical writings, but prolix and tiresome in his commentaries and homilies. Opinions differ very much as to his person, character, and merits. St. Jerome, at first an
* Subordinationism as to origin only, and not in nature, is no heresy or error, but Catholic truth. The author, there fore, expresses himself too vaguely. [R.]
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admirer, but afterwards an opponent of Origen, speaks of him thus : " Vult aliquis laudare Origenem? Laudet ut laudo. Magnus vir ab infantia et vere martyris filius, voluptates in tantum fugit, ut zelo Dei, sed tamen non secundum scientiam, ferro truncaret geni- talia ; calcavit avaritiam ; Scripturas memoria tenuit, et in studio explanationis earum diebus sudavit et noctibus. Mille et eo amplius tractatus in Ecclesia loeutus est ; edidit innumerabiles prseterea commen taries, quos ipse appellat To/j.ov$m Quis nostrum tanta potest legere, quanta ille conscripsit? Quis ardentem in Scripturis animum non miretur? Quod si quis Judas zelotes opposuerit nobis errores ejus, audiat libere :
Interdum magnus dormitat Homerus, Verum opere in longo fas est obrepere somnum.
(Horat.)
Non imitemur ejus vitia, cujus virtutes non possu- mus sequi" [Epist. 84, ad Pammachium et Ocean- urn. Cf. Vine Lir., Commonit. c. 23.] The errors of Origen were not the fruit of a perverse will, but the echo of the Platonic philosophy he had so eagerly studied in his youth.
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. XI- XVII. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 584-782. — Mohler 1. c., pp. 485-576. — Tliomasius, Origenes. Niirnberg 1838. — Redepenning, Origenes, sein Leben und seine Lehre. 2 vols. Bonn 1841-1846. —J.Z. Vincenzi, In Sancti Gregorii Nysseni et Origenis doctrinam et scripta nova recensio. 4 vols. 8vo. Romse 1864- 1865. — Freppel, Origene. 2 vols. 2 ed. Paris 1875. - Harnack, Dogmengeschichte I. 559-604 ; 2 ed. Frei burg 1888.
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§ 52. Friends of Origen.
ST. GREGORIUS THAUMATURGUS, ST. PAMPHILUS, AND ST. DlONYSIUS, THE GREAT.
Among the many friends and contemporaries of Origen, the following deserve especial mention: —
1. Gregorius Thaumaturgus, whose real name was Theodoras, was born about 210, of heathen parents, at Neocsesarea in Pontus. Together with his brother Athenodorus, he went to Berytus in Phoenicia, for the purpose of studying jurisprudence. Thence he retired to Csesarea in Palestine, where both his brother and himself were drawn towards Christianity by the per suasive eloquence of Origen, and received baptism in 239. After they had returned to their native town, Neocaesarea, Gregory was appointed in spite of his own opposition its first bishop. la the exercise of his office he wrought countless miracles, to which Gregory of Nyssa bears testimony in his biography, which, however, is not wholly trustworthy. He took part in the synod held A. D. 265 at Antioch, against Paul of Samosata. At his death A. D. 270, there remained in the city but 17 heathens, which was the number of Christians he found when entering upon his episcopal charge. The following of his writings have come down to us : —
(a.) " Oratio panegyrica in Origenem," one of the finest discourses in ancient Christian literature, and a beautiful token of gratitude to his master, and of his enthusiastic love of knowledge.
(b.) "Symbolum, sive expositio fidei," a sound explanation of the doctrine of the adorable Trinity.
(c.) "Metaphrasis in Ecclesiasten " (in 12 chap ters), which St. Jerome calls " brevis quidem, sed
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valde utilis." Furthermore, an ** Epistola canonica," containing important precepts regarding penance.
(d.) A theological treatise, addressed to Theo- pompus, upon the unity of nature in the three divine persons, and on the impassibility of God.
The "Expositio" is lost; other works, as " De anima ad Tatianum, Capitula 12 de fide," are spuri ous. Socrates gives the following testimony to the widespread fame of Gregory : —
"This Gregory is much spoken of in Athens, Berytus, and the whole province of Pontus, and, as it were, in the whole world."*
2. Pampliilus, born at Berytus in Phoanicia, com pleted his theological studies at Alexandria, and was ordained priest at Csesarea in Palestine. He there distributed his rich patrimony, partly in alms and partly towards the foundation of a valuable library, which proved a treasure to his friend Eusebius, and, later on, to Jerome. He founded a Christian school, and was indefatigable in instructing heathens and in collecting and copying books. He died about 309 from the effects of imprisonment and tortures which he suffered on account of the faith under Maximin. Pamphilus was not an original writer. Even his "Apology for Origen," in six books, was the joint composition of himself and Eusebius. In it he en deavors by means of extracts from Origen' s works to defend him against the charge of heterodoxy ; the first book only has been preserved, in the inaccurate Latin translation of Rufinus. Eusebius calls him " a
* Socrates, Hist. Eccl. lib. IV, 27 : "Hep} rooroo TOU TfoAw? 6 X6yo^ IV re 'A&ijvatf xa\ Bypurw xai y UovTtxy dtoixrjtret, w? d& eirrslv, xai
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most distinguished and true philosopher in the manner of his life." *
3. Dionysius, the Great, of Alexandria, was born in that city, of noble heathen parents, about 190. The study of philosophy left him unsatisfied, while that of the Holy Scriptures deeply impressed him and drew him towards Christianity. He studied theology under Origen and Heraclas, and succeeded the latter in 232 as superior of the catechetical school, and was chosen Bishop of Alexandria about 247. The seven teen years of his episcopal administration were one unbroken chain of sufferings and of contests, partly with external foes, as Decius and Valerian, and partly with internal, as Novatian, Sabellius, Paul of Samo- sata, Nepos the Chiliast. He died A. D. 264. Only a few fragments remain of his writings and numerous letters, viz. : an " Epistola ad Novatianum," wherein he sternly rebukes Novatian for his schismatic pro ceedings, and exhorts him to return to Catholic unity; and an "Epistola canonica," addressed to the Lybian Bishop Basilides, on penitential discipline. Of his " Commentary on the Book of Ecclesiastes," and his " Explanation of the Gospel of St. Luke," as well as of his writings " De natura," " De promis- sionibus adversus Nepotem" and u Ad versus Sabel- lium," there exist but fragments. His doctrine on the Logos, to whom he applied the term "creature" [nofyftai], was severely attacked and censured, but he tried to defend his use of the word in an orthodox sense, in a letter addressed to Pope Dionysius, part of which is still preserved. With critical penetration,
* Eusebius, H. E. VII, 32: " 9EUortfid>TaTov aor<j>
T£ l(>
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comprehensive learning, glowing zeal, and indomitable courage, he combined admirable humility and charity. Christ, in his History of Greek Literature, says: " His letters bear witness to the great and marked lit erary progress which Christian writers had made in the schools of the rhetoricians." * Ceillier characterizes him thus: " St. Denys avait un genie tres eleve, une erudition prof onde, une connaissance exactedu dogme et de la discipline de PEglise ; il etait modeste dans ses sentiments, persuasif dans ses discours, plein de zele pour 1'honneur de la religion, pour la purete de la foi, la paix et 1'unite de rEglise" [1. c. Ill, 279.]
4. Among the personal friends of Origen, besides the above mentioned, were also the Bishops of Arabia, Bishop Alexander of Jerusalem, Theoctistus and Firmilian of Caesar ea in Cappadocia, and the chrono- grapher Sextus Julius Africanus.
Editions and Literature. — To 1. — Migne, S. gr. X, 963-1206. — Ceillier 1. c. Ill, 307-325. — Ryssel, Gregor Thaum., sein Leben und seine Schriften. Leipzig 1880.— To 2. — Migne, S. gr. X, 1529- 1558. —RoutU 1. c. Ill, 485-512; IV, 339-392. — Ceillier 1. c. Ill, 435-448. — To 3. — Migne, S. gr. X, 1233-1344, 1575-1602. — Ceillier 1. c. Ill, 241-279. — Mohler 1. c., pp. 624-637. — Sage- mann, Die Romische Kirche in den ersten 3 Jahr- hunderten (Freiburg 1864), pp. 411-453. — Dittrich, Dionysius der Grosse von Alexandrien (Freiburg 1867). — To 4.— Migne, S. gr. X, 202-206, and X, 36_94. — See also the articlesunder the respective names
* l< Seine Briefe zeugeu vou den grossen f orraalen Fort- schritten, welche die chrislichen Schrif tsteller in den Schulen der Rhetoren gemacht haben." [2. Aufl., Miinchen 1890.]
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in the Kirchenlexion. — Also Bardenhewer 1. c., p. 173.
§ 53. St. Methodius, Bishop of Olympus (d. about 312).
1. Methodius, Bishop of Olympus, the particulars of whose life are unknown, was one of the many op ponents of Origen, both during his lifetime and after his death. He is described by contemporary writers as a man of great penetration of mind, of high educa tion and profound learning. He died the death of a martyr under Maximinus Daza, in the Diocletian per secution, ateout 312.
2. In his writings, Methodius defends celibacy, op poses the errors of Origen, impugns heathenism, and comments upon the texts of Holy Scripture. Chief of his works, still preserved in the original text, is the " Convivium deceni Virginum, sive de virgini- tate " [ZufjiTcofftov y Ttspl dyvetas^.
In the form of a dialogue, the writer describes with perfect enthusiasm, and with all the wealth of the Greek language at his command, the exalted idea of absolute continency or virginity, and in this way sets before his readers the great difference between Chris tian and pagan ethics in one of the most important points. The dialogue consists of 24 verses, sung by Thecla, the Chantress, to each of which a choir an swers a refrain [bnaxovst]. Only extracts and frag ments remain of his works: "De libero arbitrio et unde malum," " De resurrectione," and " De rebus creatis." The three dialogues upon Simeon and Anna, Palm-Sunday, and the cross and passion of Christ, are not genuine. A defense of the Christian religion against Porphyrius, a commentary upon Genesis, the
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Canticle of Canticles, and Job, and a sermon on the martyrs, are almost entirely lost.
3. The writings and fragments that are extant suf fice to give us an idea of his high mental endowments, his classical education, and the originality of his mind. The latter gift is particularly conspicuous in his doc trine of the incarnation (Conviv. orat. I, c. 4 ; orat. Ill, c. 4. 6.) and its relation to the Church and the faithful (orat. VIII, c. 5. 6.). Methodius teaches that the origin of evil lies not in matter, but in the abuse of free will. In his doctrine concerning the resurrection, he follows more or less Athenagoras, and keeps the midway between the spiritualistic tendencies of Origen, and the gross conceptions of the Chiliasts. The body, he maintained, being a constituent part of man, must also have a share in the immortality of the soul, and their reunion and glorification are the fruit of the redemption. Epiphanius describes Methodius as " a clever man, and one who battled hard for the truth." *
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. gr. XVIII, 9- 408. — Jahn, St. Methodii epp. 4° Halis 1865. — Ceillier 1. c. IV, 26-45. — Pankow, Methodius von Olympos. Mainz 1888. — Fritschel, Methodius und seine Philosophic. Leipzig 1879. — BonwetscJi, Methodius' von Olympus Schriften. Leipzig 1891.
My 10$ xa.} <r<f>68pa Kepi TJJ? d^Tj&etas dywvt- (Haer.LXIV, 63.)
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CHAPTER II.
LATIN FATHERS AND WRITERS. § 54. Tertullian, Priest of Carthage (d. about 240)
1. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, born at Carthage about 160, being endowed with the most splendid intellectual gifts, acquired early in life a surprising amount of knowledge in philosophy and Greek and Roman literature. He devoted himself to the study of law, and later on became professor of rhetoric in his native town ; but in matters of religion and morality he occupied a very low position, all his aims being confined to the pleasures of life. Still, the shameful immorality of the heathen religion and life did not fail to disgust him, while the pure lives of the Christians and the steadfastness of their martyrs, deeply impressed and attracted him. Soon after, he embraced Christianity, in the thirtieth year of his age, and, though married (to a Christian), entered the priesthood. Henceforth he devoted the wealth of his intellect and learning to the service of the Church. In one continuous succession of writings he vehemently at tacked and combated all her opponents, heathens, Jews and heretics. But, later on, betweep 202 and 205, he fell away and passed over to the sect of the Montanists, more congenial to the natural rigorism of his character. He founded a stricter Montanist party, that of the Tertullianists, which lasted down to the fifth century, and attacked the Catholic Church with all the bitter ness peculiar to heretics. It is very questionable whether he returned to the Church before his death, which occurred about 240.
2. Tertullian's works, which contain a rich store of
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philosophical, historical, juridical, and physical knowl edge, extend over every department of the religious life. They are divided into apologetical, dogmatical (polemical), and practical.
To the apologetical works belong : —
(a.) " Apologeticus," in 50 chapters, a large, im portant work, composed about 198, addressed to the procurators of the Roman Empire. In it he complains above all that Christians are not allowed a chance or opportunity of defending themselves, and that they are condemned merely on account of their name. He indignantly repudiates the charges, made against them by the heathens, of child-murder, of unnatural crimes in their religious assemblies, of impiety and disloyalty. True, Christians will not, indeed, render divine honor to the emperors, but they remain faithful and loyal to them even amidst the hardest persecutions, and pray for them. In conclusion he compares their doctrine and life with that of the philosophers. This Apology is as sweeping a condemnation, as it is a brilliant defense of Christianity, and is distinguished both by its matter and form.
(b.) uAd nationes," in 2 books, a further and still more severe attack upon paganism, but contain ing some very obscure and unintellegible passages.
(c.) " De testimonio animse," a small but ingenious work, wherein Tertullian shows that the human soul is naturally Christian ; that it gives testimony to the ex istence of a just God. and of evil spirits or demons, and that it is its own witness of immortality.
(d.) "Ad Scapulam," in 5 chapters, a warning to the Proconsul Scapula not to draw down upon him self the anger of God by his cruel persecution of the Christians.
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(e.) " Adversus Judseos," in 14 chapters, a demon stration of the fulfilment of the prophecies in and through Christ, and an exposition of the relation of the Mosaic to the natural and Christian law.
His dogmatical {polemical) writings are : —
(a.) " De prsescriptionibus hsereticorum," in 44 chapters, wherein he shows that the doctrine of Christ is only to be found with the organs of tradition, law fully transmitted and succeeding each other, [prse- scripto veritatis] ; that the genuine tradition is also the oldest and Apostolic, whilst every heresy is of later origin [prsescriptio principalitatis] ; and that heretics, being outside the Church, have no right to the Holy Scriptures [prsescriptio proprietatis]. The author uses his best style and the most forcible argu ments to vindicate and justify in a scientific manner the Catholic principle of tradition. This is one of the most valuable and important of Tertullian's works.
(b.) " De baptisrno," in 20 chapters, with many dogmatical and practical remarks upon the nature, necessity, effects, and administration of baptism, of infant-baptism, which he is desirous of delaying, and of the baptism of heretics, which he holds to be invalid.
(c.) "Adversus Marcionem libri V," "Adversus Valentinianos," "Adversus Hermogenem " — all against the heresy of the Gnostics.
(d.) " De aniina," in 58 chapters, a refutation of philosophical and heretical opinions concerning the soul, in which, however, error is freely mixed with truth.
(e.) "Adversus Praxeam," in 31 chapters, a demonstration of the Trinity.
(f.) " De carne Christi," in which the doctrine of
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the Incarnation is well grasped and ardently defended against the Gnostics.
(g.) " De resurrectione carnis," in 63 chapters, a demonstration against the Gnostics, from reason and Holy Scripture, that the body, as the instrument of the soul, will be raised up and reunited to it.
To Tertullian's practical works belong the follow ing:—
(a.) "Ad martyres," in 6 chapters, for the en couragement and consolation of the Christians lan guishing in prison under sentence of death.
(b.) "De spectaculis," in 30 chapters, an earnest warning to Christians and catechumens against fre quenting public shows, those " privata consistoria impudicitise."
(c.) " De idolatria," in 24 chapters, an admonition against direct and indirect participation in idolatrous worship.
(d.) "De corona militis," in 15 chapters, showing that it is not lawful for a Christian soldier to wear a wreath upon his head after the heathen fashion.
(e.) " De fuga in persecutione," in 14 chapters, urging that instead of flying from martyrdom, we ought much rather to covet it.
(f.) " Scorpiace contra Gnosticos," in 15 chap ters, on the unlawfulness of denying the faith and on the meritoriousness of martyrdom.
(g.) "De patientia," in 16 chapters, an extremely beautiful and eloquent description of patience.
(h.) " De oratione," in 29 chapters, on the Lord's Prayer and the manner of praying in general.
(i.) " De poenitentia, " in 12 chapters, on the nature and necessity of penance, and the manner of practicing it rigorously.
9
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(j.) " De pudicitia," on purity, in which, contrary to his former opinion, he limits the forgiveness of sin to lesser faults.
(k.) "Ad uxorem," in 17 chapters, advice to his wife against marrying again, and of the unlawfulness of marrying a heathen, on account of the great dangers besetting the faith.
(1.) u De cultu feminarum," in 2 books, in which he censures female extravagance in dress, and extols the virtues of a Christian life, particularly modesty.
(m.) " De pallio," in 6 chapters, a trenchant self- justification for having exchanged the philosopher's cloak for the toga.
(n.) " De exhortatione castitatis," in 13 chapters, warning to a friend not to marry again.
(o.) " De monogamia," in 16 chapters, in which second marriage is utterly rejected as " species stupri."
(p.) " De virginibus velandis," that virgins, as well as married women, should ;wear a veil.
(q.) "De jejunioadversus psychicos," in 17 chap ters, a severe attack upon Catholics on the subject of fasting.
The last four works, as well as the " De corona militis " and " Fuga in persecutione," " Scorpiace " and " De pudicitia," are written in the Montanist spirit. Some works are lost, others, as " Libellus adversus omnes haereses," " Epistola de cibis judai- cis," and others, are incorrectly ascribed to him.
3. The various works of Tertullian contain, though interspersed with many errors, some of the finest arguments for the Catholic faith. His character, too, is revealed in his writings. Ardor and earnestness, acuteness and knowledge, were in him harmoniously blended together. These qualities made St. Jerome-
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exclaim: "Quid Tertulliano eruditius? quid acrius? * Apologeticus ' ejus, et contra gentes libri cunctam sseculi* obtinent disciplinam " [Epist. 70. ad Mag num.] He knew how to handle the most difficult questions of dogma and morals in such a way that we almost seem to read a writer of our own days. Ter- tullian recognized the will of God as the supreme and first rule of man's life and action, but he failed to see that the divine will is made known to us by the Church alone. He consequently fell into the errors of Mon- tanism, which was more in harmony with the rigor of his character. His language, like his character, is harsh and austere, his diction laconic and cutting, almost always concise and obscure. " Pene quot verba, tot sententise, quot sensus, tot sunt victorias " [Vine. Lirin., Commonit. c. 24.] Amongst his best writings, we may count the "Apologeticus," "Liber de prsescriptionibus," "De poenitentia," " De patien- tia," " De oraMone," and " Exhortatio ad martyres." Tertullian is the father of the Latin language of the Church.
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. lat. I-II. 1. — Tertulliani opp., pars I, in Corp. script, eccl. lat. vol. XX, ed. Eeifferscheid et Wissowa. Vindob. 1890. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 374-529. — Mohler 1. c. pp. 701-789. — Freppel, Tertullien. 2e ed. Paris 1872. — JffaucJc, Tertullian' s Leben und Schriften. Erlangen 1877. — Nirschl, Lehrbuch § 76. — Bonwetsch, Die Schriften Tertullians nach der Zeit ihrer Abfassung. Bonn 1878. — Kolberg, Verfassung, Cultus und Dis- ciplin der christl. Kirche nach den Schriften Tertul lians. Braunsberg 1886. — Noldechen, Tertullian. Gotha 1890, criticized in the Zeitschr. fiir Kathol. Theol, (Innsbruck 1892), pp. 529-534. —Esser, Die
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Seelenlehre Tertullians. Paderborn 1893. — English translations of the Apologeticus by W. Reeve, Lon don 1889, 1894; and by T. H. Bindley, London 1890. — Also, Tertulliani de prescript, haer., ad mar- tyres, adScapulam, edited with introduction and notes by T. H. Bindley, Oxford 1894. 8™.
§ 55. Minucius Felix.
1. Of the life of this ecclesiastical writer, we only know that, according to St. Jerome, he was celebrated in Rome as a lawyer and orator [" insignis causidicus Romoe," Hieron.], and that he continued to follow the same profession after his conversion to Christianity, which occurred in his later years, in the time of the Emperors Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius. He had two friends, Octavius Januarius, a lawyer and a Christian like himself, and CseciliusNatalis, a heathen. These, while journeying from Rome to Ostia, entered into a disputation upon heathenism and Christianity, which gave occasion to Minucius Felix, who had been chosen umpire, to compose his Apology for Chris tianity, under the title " Octavius," in 40 chapters.
2. In the form of a dialogue the author shows, first, how Octavius exposes the absurdity of paganism, and how he refutes the ordinary charges, brought up by Csecilius, against the Christians, of worshiping the head of an ass, of being atheists and enemies of the State> and of indulging in immoral practices. He then pro ceeds to show how Octavius set forth with warmth and enthusiasm the truth and beauty of the Christian re ligion, so far as to gain his opponent to its cause. Both conquered, the one over his adversary, the other Over his error. " Ego Octavio meo plurimum quantum
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eadem tranquillitate, qua vivimus, sed et mihi gratu- lor, nee expecto sententiam. Vicimus, et ita baud im- probe usurpo victoriam ; nam, ut ille mei victor est, ita ego triumphator erroris " (c. 40.)
3. This is probably the most ancient of the Latin apologies that we possess, and it has this great advan tage, that the differences between polytheism and monotheism (c. 20-28), between the heathen and the Christian views (c. 31-38), are drawn directly from life. It contains, moreover, many interesting details about heathen demon-worship, and the position and life of the Christian Church of those days. But, strange to say, there is no shadow of an attempt at Scriptural proof, or demonstration of specific Christian doctrines, such as the Trinity, redemption, and others. The reason of this omission no doubt is to be sought in the particular purpose of the work, and in the im mediate circle of its readers. The style is brilliant, and the expressions most happy. The power of mind, the subtlety and depth of argument, the charm of description and variety of imagery are admirable. Both arrangement and subject bear witness to the high philosophical culture and juridical precision of the writer. u Minucius Felix non ignobilis inter causidicos loci fuit. Huius liber, cui 'Octavius ' titu- lus est, declarat, quam idoneus veritatis assertor esse potuisset, si se totum ad id studium contulisset " [Lactantius, Instit. V, 1, etl, 2.]
Editions and Literature. — Migne, S. lat. Ill, 201-672. — Halm, Corp. script, eccl. lat. vol. II. Vindob. 1867. — Ceillier 1. c. II, 222-234. — Rich. Kiihn, Der Octavius des Minucius Felix. Eine heid- nisch-philosoph. Auffassung des Christenthums. Leip zig 1882. — Grillnberger, Der Octavius keine heid-
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nisch-philos. Auffassung des Christenth., Jahrb. fiir Philosophic und specul. Theol. Ill (1889), 104 sq. - Kilm, art. Minucius Felix, in Wetzer and Welte's Kirchenlex. (2 Aufl.).
§ 56. St. Cyprian, Bishop of Carthage (d. 258).
1. Thascius Ccecilius Cyprianus, born of a wealthy and distinguished heathen family at Carthage, in the beginning of the third century, was a man of great genius and talent. He followed the profession of a teacher, and his fame as a rhetorician became so great that it brought him not only distinction, but also considerable wealth. These advantages, however, proved no spiritual blessing to him ; they only af forded greater facility for indulging in dissipation and worldly pleasures. A change, however, came about in 246, when Cyprian was converted to Christianity by the priest Caecilius, whose name he henceforth adopted out of regard and esteem for his new teacher. Having distributed his earthly goods to the poor, the new convert began to devote himself with great ardor <